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Theories and Explanations in Psychology

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38 Famous Psychology Theories: Examples and Overview

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Psychology is the social science that studies the mind. However, there is a broad range of ways to conduct this analysis, which has led to a proliferation of psychological theories.

These theories can be separated into a few key categories, including:

• Psychoanalytic Theories
• Behavioral Theories
• Cognitive Theories
• Developmental Theories
• Social Psychology Theories
• Motivation and Humanist Theories
• Personality Theories

In each category, we have a range of contributing theories that have fundamentally shaped the field of psychology. Each is outlined below.

Psychology Theories Examples

1. Psychoanalytic Theories

Psychoanalysis centers on uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions that contribute to an individual’s mental afflictions. This can involves the interpretation of dreams and free association techniques.

The practice of psychoanalysis involves facilitating a patient’s self-insight by providing interpretations of the patient’s words and behavior in therapy.

Freud pioneered the notion of unconscious mental processes, highlighting the repressed conflicts that, under the surface, influence human behavior. He also introduced the concept of a structured mind consisting of the id, ego, and superego .

Building on Freud’s work, later psychoanalysts, such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, branched out to explore collective unconscious and individual psychology, respectively.

Major Psychoanalytic Theories

• Ego Psychology (Freud): This theory emphasizes the role of the ego in mediating between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality, focusing on defense mechanisms and adaptive functions.
• Psychosexual Development Theory (Freud): Freud proposed that individuals progress through five stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) where pleasure is centered on different erogenous zones, and conflicts at each stage can impact personality and behavior.
• The Collective Unconscious (Jung) : Jung believed in a shared, deep layer of the unconscious that houses universal memories and ideas inherited from our ancestors, distinct from an individual’s personal unconscious.
• Psychological Archetypes (Jung) : Jung also proposed that we all have universally recognized symbols and themes, such as the Hero or the Mother, present in myths, stories, and dreams, stemming from the collective unconscious.
• Individual Psychology (Adler): Adler’s theory emphasizes the importance of feelings of inferiority, the striving for superiority or success, and the role of social connections in shaping personality.
• Psychosocial Development Theory (Erikson) : Erikson proposed that individuals navigate eight stages of life, each marked by a specific conflict that influences personality development and social relationships.
• Object Relations Theory (Klein): This theory focuses on the importance of early relationships, especially with primary caregivers, in shaping how individuals relate to others and their understanding of social bonds throughout life.

Go Deeper: Psychoanalytic Theories in Psychology

2. Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories in psychology posit that human behavior is learned and shaped by environmental stimuli.

Breaking from the introspective nature of psychoanalysis, behaviorism asserts that all behavior can be explained without considering internal mental states. Instead, it maintains that behavior is a response to stimuli in our environment.

In fact, behaviorists argue that, in order for psychology to be considered a true science, unconscious and unobservable mental states should be rejected as unexaminable. (Behaviorists went as far as labelling psychoanalysis to be mere pseudoscience ).

Behaviorism surfaced around the early 20th century with John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov as leading figures. B.F. Skinner later further developed the theory, emphasizing operant learning, the idea that a behavior’s consequence affects its likelihood of reoccurrence.

Major Behavioral Psychology Theories

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) : The famous Pavlov’s dog experiment demonstrated that learning can occur in an organism (human or animal) when a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus (such as food). Once these two stimuli become associated, we can infer a learned behavior – i.e. a dog salivating when a bell rings.
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner) : This theory posits that behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences, including reinforcements (which increase behavior) and punishments (which decrease behavior). Rewards make a behavior more likely to reoccur, while punishments make a behavior less likely to reoccur.
• Social Learning Theory (Bandura) : Through his famous Bobo Doll experiment, Bandura proposed that people can learn new behaviors and acquire new information simply by observing others, emphasizing the importance of modeling and imitation.
• Stimulus Response Theory (Watson): This theory suggests that behavior is a direct response to a stimulus, emphasizing the predictability of behavior in relation to specific stimuli.
• Contingency Theory (Rescorla): Rescorla’s theory emphasizes that for learning to occur, a stimulus must reliably predict another; it’s not just the pairing, but the predictive value of the pairing that matters.

3. Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories focus on understanding how mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving influence behavior.

Operating under the assumption that humans are rational and systemic in the way that they organize and interpret information, cognitive theories emphasize the active role of individuals in shaping their understanding of reality.

This perspective emerged as a reaction to the limitations of behaviorism, which disregarded the influence of cognitive processes on behavior. Cognitive psychologists argued that complex mental processes, such as problem-solving, could not be fully understood through observable behavior alone.

But don’t mistake it with the highly theoretical psychoanalysis – cognitive psychology has a strong empirical emphasis, relying on experimental research (see: experimental psychology) to reach its conclusions.

A leading figure in this field is Jean Piaget, known for his theory on children’s cognitive development. The concepts central to cognitive theory, such as schema and cognitive biases, have been highly influential in numerous subfields, including educational psychology , clinical psychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Major Cognitive Psychology Theories

• Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget) : Piaget proposed that children progress through four distinct stages of cognitive growth (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational), each characterized by specific ways of thinking and understanding the world.
• Information Processing Theory: This theory likens the human mind to a computer, emphasizing how information is taken in, processed, stored, and retrieved.
• Schema Theory (Bartlett): Bartlett suggested that our understanding of the world is organized into mental frameworks or “schemas” that influence how we perceive and remember information.
• Dual Process Theory (Kahneman): Kahneman proposed that human thinking operates on two levels: a fast, intuitive process (System 1) and a slower, more deliberate process (System 2).
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) : Festinger suggested that individuals experience discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading them to change one to resolve the inconsistency.

Go Deeper: The Major Cognitive Psychology Theories

4. Developmental Theories

Psychological development theories are concerned with changes in cognitive, physical, and social abilities over the course of life.

These theories provide frameworks for understanding how humans grow, change, and learn across their lifespan. They aim to explain the processes of development and growth, outlining stages or phases that a person typically passes through from infancy to adulthood.

Notable theorists include Jean Piaget, who proposed four stages of cognitive development and emphasized the role of active learning; Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson, who outlined theories of psychosexual and psychosocial development respectively; Lawrence Kohlberg, who created a theory of moral development; and Urie Bronfenbrenner, who framed human development within an ecological systems context.

Broadly speaking, the theories explore how individuals’ abilities, behavior, and identities are shaped over time, in connection with genetic and environmental factors. They stress the importance of stages, critical periods, and the influence of early experiences on later behavior.

Major Developmental Psychology Theories

• Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget): Piaget proposed that children progress through four distinct stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) of cognitive growth, each characterized by specific ways of thinking and understanding the world.
• Moral Development Theory (Kohlberg) : Kohlberg outlined a three-level, six-stage theory where individuals progress through distinct stages of moral reasoning, from a focus on self-interest to a broader, universal ethical principle.
• Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development (Loevinger): Loevinger described a series of stages where individuals progress in their understanding of self and others, moving from a simplistic, self-centered perspective to one of integrated self-awareness and concern for others.
• Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner) : Bronfenbrenner proposed that an individual’s development is influenced by a series of interconnected systems, from immediate surroundings like family to broader societal structures.
• Montessori’s Planes of Development (Montessori) : Montessori outlined four distinct developmental stages (or planes) from birth to adulthood, each with its own characteristics and educational needs, emphasizing self-directed learning and hands-on experience.

5. Social Psychology Theories

Social psychology theories aim to understand how individuals’ behaviors, thoughts, and feelings are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.

A key debate that led to the rise of social psychology was the disagreement between Piaget, of cognitive psychology, and Vygotsky. While Piaget held that children tend to develop at a relatively similar rate, Vygotsky disagreed, holding that social contexts (such as books in the house and parental support) can heavily impact rates of development.

Later, Barbara Rogoff demonstrated that cultural contexts also strongly affect development (e.g. children in different cultures develop along different paths).

Social psychology theories explore a wide spectrum of social phenomena that affect individuals, including, but not limited to, social psychology concepts like social perception, social interaction, group behavior, and social influence. These theories provide the foundation for understanding how social context shapes individual behavior and how the interplay between the two impacts a variety of outcomes – from attitudes and stereotypes to interpersonal relationships and collective action.

Ultimately, social psychology theories underscore the significant impact that our social environment has on our attitudes and behaviors, reminding us that our perception of reality is as much a social construction as it is an objective fact.

Major Social Psychology Theories

• Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky) : Vygotsky emphasized the critical role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development, particularly the influence of language and more knowledgeable peers or adults.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel) : Tajfel proposed that individuals categorize themselves and others into in-groups and out-groups, leading to biases that favor one’s own group and shape self-esteem.
• Attribution Theory (Heider) : Heider posited that people tend to explain others’ behaviors based on internal dispositions or external situations, influencing their perceptions and reactions.
• Social Exchange Theory (Homans) : Homans proposed that social behavior is the result of an exchange process where individuals weigh potential benefits and costs of interactions.
• Social Learning Theory (Bandura) : Bandura emphasized that people can learn new behaviors and acquire new information simply by observing others, highlighting the role of modeling and imitation.

6. Motivation and Humanist Theories

Motivation and humanist theories tend to overlap to the extent that I’ve decided to group them here.

Here is how they overlap:

• Humanist psychology focuses on individual free will, personal growth, and the concept of self-actualization.
• Motivation theories aim to comprehend the ‘why’ behind human actions, which presupposes free will and (usually) the fact we desire personal growth, given the right conditions.

Humanist psychologists assert that individuals have an inherent drive towards self-fulfillment and are inherently good. The subjective experiences and perceptions of the individual are given prime importance in these theories.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are among the leading figures in humanistic psychology. They strived to understand human psychology, not through mental illness symptoms, but by recognizing the potential for creativity, love, and self-actualization in all individuals.

Next, multiple motivation theories explore different angles and potential explanations for human drive. For instance, Drive Theory postulates that human behavior is propelled by a series of physiological needs, whereas Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs classifies the needs into a sequence of relative significance.

Combined, motivation and humanistic theories provide a holistic view of human behavior, integrating elements of inner drive, environmental influences, and the aspiration for self-improvement.

Major Motivational and Humanistic Theories

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs : Maslow proposed a pyramid of human needs, starting from basic physiological needs to self-actualization, suggesting that lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating.
• Attachment Theory (Bowlby & Ainsworth) : This theory posits that early relationships with caregivers form the basis for later social attachments and influence an individual’s emotional and social development.
• Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory: Rogers emphasized the importance of self-actualization, positive regard, and an authentic relationship between therapist and client for therapeutic change.
• Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan) : Deci and Ryan proposed that optimal human functioning and well-being are achieved when individuals satisfy their innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
• Expectancy Theory (Vroom): Vroom suggested that motivation is determined by the expectation that a certain behavior will lead to a desired outcome, multiplied by the value of that outcome to the individual.
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Herzberg proposed that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two separate sets of factors: motivation factors (which lead to satisfaction) and hygiene factors (whose absence can lead to dissatisfaction).

Read More: Examples of Humanistic Psychology

7. Personality Theories

Personality theories in psychology aim to define and explain the consistent patterns of behavior, thinking, and feeling that characterizes individuals.

Researchers in this field strive to elucidate how personality develops and how it influences behavior. Generally, they focus on identifying traits, behaviors, and motivations which distinguish individuals from one another and predict how individuals will behave in certain situations.

Regardless of their different views, all personality theories contribute to understanding the complexity of humans, seeking to explain why we are uniquely ourselves.

Major Personality Theories in Psychology

• Trait Theory of Personality : This theory posits that personalities are composed of a set of stable characteristics or traits that influence an individual’s behavior across various situations.
• Five Factor Model of Personality: This model identifies five core personality traits: openness, conscientiousness , extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, which are believed to describe the broad dimensions of human personality.
• Freud’s Personality Theory : Freud proposed that personality is shaped by the dynamic interactions among the id (primitive desires), ego (reality-oriented mediator), and superego (moral conscience).
• Adler’s Individual Psychology: Adler believed that individuals are driven by a sense of inferiority to strive for superiority or success, and that social connections and community play a crucial role in shaping personality.
• Humanist Theory of Personality : Rooted in the works of figures like Maslow and Rogers, this theory emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and the intrinsic nature of humans to grow towards their personal ideals in a supportive environment.

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Hernán Camilo Pulido Pontifica Universidad Javeriana, Columbia

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Article contents

Major theories in social psychology.

• Klaus Fiedler Klaus Fiedler Heidelberg University
•  and  Karolin Salmen Karolin Salmen Heidelberg University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.810
• Published online: 28 June 2021

A synopsis of major theories of social psychology is provided with reference to three major domains of social-psychological inquiry: attitudes and attitude change, motivation regulation, and group behavior. Despite the heterogeneity of research topics, there is considerable overlap in the basic theoretical principles across all three domains. Typical theories that constitute the common ground of social psychology rely on rules of good Gestalt consistency, on psychodynamic principles, but also on behaviorist learning models and on semantic-representation and information-transition models borrowed from cognitive science. Prototypical examples that illustrate the structure and the spirit of theories in social psychology are dissonance theory, construal-level, regulatory focus, and social identity theory. A more elaborate taxonomy of pertinent theories is provided in the first table in this article.

• dissonance theory
• Gestalt theories
• psychodynamic theories
• learning theories
• constructivist theories
• construal-level theory
• regulatory-focus theory
• attitudes and attitude change
• motivation regulation
• social groups

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Chapter 4: Theory in Psychology

The Variety of Theories in Psychology

Learning Objectives

• Describe three dimensions along which theories in psychology vary.
• Give examples of several different types of theories in psychology.

Researchers in psychology have found that many different types of theories can help them to organize phenomena, predict what will happen in new situations, and generate new research. It is important for beginning researchers to be aware of the different types so that they recognize theories when they see them in the research literature. (They are not always clearly labeled as “theories.”) It is also important for them to see that some types of theories are well within their ability to understand, use, and even construct. In this section, we look at the variety of psychological theories in terms of three important dimensions: formality, scope, and theoretical approach.

Psychological theories vary widely in their  formality —the extent to which the components of the theory and the relationships among them are specified clearly and in detail. At the informal end of this dimension are theories that consist of simple verbal descriptions of a few important components and relationships. The habituation theory of expressive-writing effects on health is relatively informal in this sense. So is the drive theory of social facilitation and inhibition. At the more precise, formal end of this dimension are theories that are expressed in terms of mathematical equations or computer programs.

Formal Theories in Psychology People who are not familiar with scientific psychology are sometimes surprised to learn that psychological theories can take the form of mathematical equations and computer programs. The following formal theories are among the best known and most successful in the field.

• ACT-R .  A comprehensive theory of human cognition that is akin to a programming language, within which more specific models can be created. See  more about ACT-R.
• Prospect theory .  A formal theory of decision making under uncertainty. Psychologist Daniel Kahneman won the Nobel Prize in economics based in part on prospect theory, which he developed with Amos Tversky. Read about Kahneman’s Nobel Prize work .
• Rescorla-Wagner model .  A theory of classical conditioning that features an equation describing how the strength of the association between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli changes when the two are paired. For more on this formal theory—including an interactive version: The Rescorla-Wagner Model of Classical Conditioning .

Both informal and formal theories have their place in psychological research. Informal theories tend to be easier to create and to understand but less precise in their predictions, which can make them more difficult to test. They are especially appropriate, however, in the early stages of research when the phenomena of interest have not yet been described in detail. Formal theories tend to be more difficult to create and to understand—sometimes requiring a certain amount of mathematical or computer programming background—but they also tend to be more precise in their predictions and therefore easier to test. They are especially appropriate in the later stages of research when the phenomena of interest have been described in detail.

Theories in psychology also vary widely in their  scope —the number and diversity of the phenomena they explain or interpret. Many early psychological theories were extremely broad in that they attempted to interpret essentially all human behaviour. Freud and his followers, for example, applied his theory not only to understanding psychological disorders but also to slips of the tongue and other everyday errors, dreaming, sexuality, art, politics, and even civilization itself (Fine, 1979) [1] .

Such theories have fallen out of favour in scientific psychology, however, because they tend to be imprecise and difficult to test. In addition, they have not been particularly successful at organizing or predicting the range and complexity of human behaviour at the level of detail that scientific researchers usually seek. These large theories that attempt to explain everything often end up being vague and can seldom make specific predictions.

Still, contemporary theories in psychology can vary in their scope. At the broad end of this dimension are theories that apply to many diverse phenomena. For example, cognitive dissonance theory proposed by Leon Festinger in 1956 assumes that when people hold inconsistent beliefs, this duality creates mental discomfort that they are motivated to reduce by changing one or both of the beliefs. This theory has been applied to a wide variety of phenomena, including the persistence of irrational beliefs and behaviours (e.g., smoking), the effectiveness of certain persuasion and sales techniques (e.g., asking for a small favour before asking for a big one), and even placebo effects. At the narrow end of this dimension are theories that apply to a small number of closely related phenomena. Consider, for example, a very specific quantitative ability called subitizing. This refers to people’s ability to quickly and accurately perceive the number of objects in a scene without counting them—as long as the number is four or fewer. Several theories have been proposed to explain subitizing. Among them is the idea that small numbers of objects are associated with easily recognizable patterns. For example, people know immediately that there are three objects in a scene because the three objects tend to form a “triangle” and it is this pattern that is quickly perceived (Logan & Sbrodoff, 2003) [2] .

As with informal and formal theories, both broad and narrow theories have their place in psychological research. Broad theories organize more phenomena but tend to be less formal and less precise in their predictions. Narrow theories organize fewer phenomena but tend to be more formal and more precise in their predictions.

Theoretical Approach

In addition to varying in formality and scope, theories in psychology vary widely in the kinds of theoretical ideas they are constructed from. We will refer to this fundamental aspect as th eir  theoretical approach .

Functional theories  explain psychological phenomena in terms of their function or purpose. For example, one prominent theory of repeated self-injury (e.g., cutting) is that people do it because it produces a short-term reduction in the intensity of negative emotions that they are feeling (Tantam & Huband, 2009) [3] .Note that this theory does not focus on how this reduction happens, but on the function of self-injury for the people who engage in it. Theories from the perspective of evolutionary psychology also tend to be functional—assuming that human behaviour has evolved to solve specific adaptive problems faced by our distant ancestors. Consider the phenomenon of sex differences in human mating strategies (Buss & Schmitt, 1993) [4] .

Men are somewhat more likely than women to seek short-term partners and to value physical attractiveness over material resources in a mate. Women are somewhat more likely than men to seek long-term partners and to value material resources over physical attractiveness in a mate. But why? The standard evolutionary theory holds that because the male investment in becoming a parent is relatively small, men reproduce more successfully by seeking several short-term partners who are young and healthy (which is signaled by physical attractiveness). But because the female investment in becoming a parent is quite large, women reproduce more successfully by seeking a long-term partner who has resources to contribute to raising the child.

Mechanistic theories , on the other hand, focus on specific variables, structures, and processes, and how they interact to produce the phenomena. These types of theories involve identifying a mechanism or explanation for the phenomenon and providing context for when or how intense the phenomenon happens. The drive theory of social facilitation and inhibition and the multistore model of human memory are mechanistic theories in this sense.  Figure 4.3 represents another example—a contemporary cognitive theory of hypochondriasis—an extreme form of health anxiety in which people misinterpret ordinary bodily symptoms (e.g., headaches) as signs of a serious illness (e.g., a brain tumor; Williams, 2004) [5] . This theory specifies several key variables and the relationships among them. Specifically, people who are high in the personality trait of neuroticism (also called negative emotionality) start to pay excessive attention to negative health information—especially if they have had a significant illness experience as a child (e.g., a seriously ill parent). This attention to negative health information then leads to health anxiety and hypochondriasis, especially among people who are low in effortful control, which is the ability to shift attention away from negative thoughts and feelings.

Mechanistic theories can also be expressed in terms of biological structures and processes. With advances in genetics and neuroscience, such theories are becoming increasingly common in psychology and research is often criticized when it is does not contain a mechanism. For example, researchers are currently constructing and testing theories that specify the brain structures associated with the storage and rehearsal of information in the short-term store, the transfer of information to the long-term store, and so on. Theories of psychological disorders are also increasingly likely to focus on biological mechanisms. Schizophrenia, for example, has been explained in terms of several biological theories, including theories that focus on genetics, neurotransmitters, brain structures, and even prenatal exposure to infections. If functional theories provide the “why”, then mechanistic theories provide the “how”.

Finally, there are also theoretical approaches that provide organization without necessarily providing a functional or mechanistic explanation. These include stage theories , which specify a series of stages that people pass through as they develop or adapt to their environment. Famous stage theories include Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. A distinguishing factor of stage theories is that as people pass through the stages, they integrate their outcomes from previous stages to help them succeed in the next stage. In stage theories, progressing forward or stopping is the only option, because stage theories do not allow for reverting to previous stages. Typologies  provide organization by categorizing people or behaviour into distinct types. These include theories that identify several basic emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, and disgust), several distinct types of intelligence (e.g., spatial, linguistic, mathematical, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal), and distinct types of personalities (e.g., Type A vs. Type B). Unlike stage theories, people do not progress through the typologies in any order or at all.

Researchers in psychology have found that there is a place for all these theoretical approaches. In fact, multiple approaches are probably necessary to provide a complete understanding of any set of phenomena. A complete understanding of emotions, for example, is likely to require identifying the basic emotions that people experience, explaining why we have those emotions, and describing how those emotions work in terms of underlying psychological and biological variables, structures, and processes.

Key Takeaways

• Theories in psychology vary widely in terms of their formality, scope, and theoretical approach. The different types of theories all play important roles in psychological research.
• Practice: Find an empirical research report in a professional journal, identify a theory that the researchers present, and then describe the theory in terms of its formality (informal vs. formal), scope (broad vs. narrow), and theoretical approach (functional, mechanistic, etc.).
• Discussion: Do you think there will ever be a single theory that explains all psychological disorders? Why or why not?
• Fine, R. (1979).  A history of psychoanalysis . New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ↵
• Logan, G. D., & Sbrodoff, N. J. (2003). Subitizing and similarity: Toward a pattern-matching theory of enumeration.  Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10 , 676–682. ↵
• Tantam, D., & Huband, N. (2009).  Understanding repeated self-injury: A multidisciplinary approach . New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. ↵
• Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: A contextual evolutionary analysis of human mating.  Psychological Review, 100 , 204–232. ↵
• Williams, P. G. (2004). The psychopathology of self-assessed health: A cognitive approach to health anxiety and hypochondriasis.  Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28 , 629–644. ↵

The extent to which the components of the theory and the relationships among them are specified clearly and in detail.

A comprehensive theory of human cognition that is akin to a programming language, within which more specific models can be created.

A formal theory of decision making under uncertainty.

A theory of classical conditioning that features an equation describing how the strength of the association between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli changes when the two are paired.

The number and diversity of the phenomena a theory explains or interprets.

Theories in psychology are constructed from a variety of theoretical ideas.

Psychological phenomena are explained in terms of their function or purpose.

Focus on specific variables, structures, and processes as well as how these factors interact to produce a particular phenomena.

Specify a series of stages that people pass through as they develop or adapt to their environment.

Groups organized by the distinct type of person or behaviour being categorized.

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

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What Are Psychological Theories? Explained With Examples

What Are Psychological Theories? Exploring the Foundations of Human Behavior. This blog explores the intriguing field of psychology, unravelling the essence of Psychological Theories. Discover the fundamental concepts, prominent theories, and their impact on understanding the complex workings of the human mind and behaviour in this insightful exploration.

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They offer insights into why we think, feel, and act as we do, paving the way for therapeutic breakthroughs, educational strategies, and a profound understanding of ourselves. So, What are Psychological Theories, and how have they evolved to shape our comprehension of the complexities that define us? 

Explore the blog and learn What Psychological Theories are, their importance, forms, examples, and how they are used productively in day-to-day life. 

Table of Contents  

1) The basics of Psychological Theories 

2) Major categories of Psychological Theories  

3) The formulation of Psychological Theories  

4) Examples of Psychological Theories  

5) The evolution of Psychological Theories 

6) Conclusion 

The Basics of Psychological Theories  

2) Behavioural Theories:  Behavioural Theories emphasise observable behaviours and their relationship with environmental stimuli. B.F. For example, Skinner's operant conditioning Theory posits that behaviours are learned through reinforcement and punishment. These Theories are essential in understanding how external factors shape actions. 

3) Cognitive Theories:  Cognitive Theories explore mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving. Jean Piaget's cognitive development Theory describes how children's thinking evolves as they interact with their environment. Cognitive approaches shed light on how individuals process information and make decisions. 

4) Humanistic Theories:  Humanistic Theories, like those proposed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, focus on individual growth, self-actualisation, and personal experiences. These Theories emphasise the importance of meeting psychological needs and realising one's potential for psychological well-being. 

5) Social learning Theories:  Social learning Theories, championed by Albert Bandura, highlight the role of observational learning and modelling in shaping behaviour. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated how children imitate behaviours they observe in others, illustrating the influence of social context on learning. 

6) Biological Theories:  Biological Theories examine the relationship between physiological processes and behaviour. Neuroscience explains how the brain and nervous system contribute to thoughts, emotions, and actions. The study of genetics and heritability also plays a role in understanding how traits are passed down across generations. 

7) Evolutionary Psychology:  Evolutionary Psychology proposes that human behaviour and cognition have evolved to adapt to the challenges of survival and reproduction. This perspective suggests that certain behaviours, emotions, and cognitive processes can be understood as products of natural selection. 

8) Trait Theories:  Trait Theories focus on identifying and categorising consistent personality traits that influence behaviour. The Five-Factor Model (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) is a widely adopted framework to describe and measure personality traits. 

9) Ecological systems Theory:  Proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, this Theory emphasises the interaction between an individual and their environment, recognising that development is influenced by multiple layers, from immediate family to broader cultural contexts. 

Major categories of Psychological Theories   

Psychological Theories are categorized into several major groups or domains, each of which focuses on specific aspects of human behavior and mental processes. These categories help organize and classify the diverse Theories within the field of psychology. The major categories of psychological Theories include: 

1) Biological Theories:  These Theories focus on the relationship between the brain, nervous system, and behaviour. They explore how genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain structures influence psychological processes. Neuroscientific advancements have provided insights into schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety disorders. 

2) Cognitive Theories : These Theories examine mental processes, including perception, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. They delve into how people acquire, process, and store information, leading to our understanding of cognitive biases, decision-making, and cognitive development across the lifespan. 

3) Behavioural Theories:  These Theories emphasise observable behaviours and how they are learned through interactions with the environment. Operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social learning ideas fall under this category. They're essential in behaviour modification, addiction treatment, and education. 

4) Psychodynamic Theories : These Theories, rooted in the works of Freud and his followers, emphasise the role of unconscious processes in shaping behaviour. Concepts like the id, ego, superego, and defence mechanisms contribute to our understanding of personality, motivation, and psychotherapy. 

5) Humanistic Theories : These Theories focus on individual growth, self-actualisation, and personal experiences. They stress the importance of free will, self-awareness, and pursuing one's potential. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy are prominent examples. 

6) Social and cultural Theories:  These Theories examine how social interactions, institutions, and cultural norms influence behaviour and Psychological Processes. Social identity Theory, cultural Psychology, and Theories of prejudice and discrimination fall within this realm. 

7) Developmental Theories:  These Theories explore how individuals change and evolve over their lifetimes. Jean Piaget's cognitive development and Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages are iconic examples. These Theories provide insights into how people learn, mature, and adapt from infancy to old age. 

8) Evolutionary Psychology:  This subject draws from evolutionary biology to understand how psychological traits and behaviours have evolved to enhance survival and reproduction. It explores adaptations, such as aggression, mate selection preferences, and universal human characteristics. 

9) Trait Theories:  These Theories aim to categorise and measure consistent behaviour, emotion, and thought patterns. The Five-Factor Model (Big Five) is a widely accepted framework with dimensions like openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. 

10) Positive Psychology:  This subject studies positive emotions, strengths, virtues, and factors contributing to human flourishing. It aims to enhance well-being, resilience, and the qualities that make life fulfilling. 

11) Ecological systems Theory:  Bronfenbrenner views individuals as embedded within various interconnected environments, from family and peers to culture and society. It emphasises the dynamic interplay between these systems in shaping development. 

12) Attachment Theory:   Bowlby examines the bonds formed between caregivers and children. It sheds light on how early relationships influence emotional and social development. 

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The Formulation of Psychological Theories    

1) Identifying a phenomenon or question:  The formulation of a psychological Theory often begins with the identification of a specific psychological phenomenon or a question about human behavior or mental processes. This phenomenon could be related to anything from memory and learning to social behavior and emotions. 

2) Literature review : Researchers conduct a comprehensive review of existing research and literature related to the chosen phenomenon or question. This step helps them understand what is already known and what gaps or unanswered questions exist in the field. 

3) Hypothesis generation : Based on their review of the literature, researchers begin to generate hypotheses or educated guesses about the underlying causes, mechanisms, or relationships involved in the phenomenon they are investigating. These hypotheses serve as the foundation for the Theory. 

4) Conceptualisation : Researchers develop a conceptual framework or model that outlines the key concepts and variables related to the phenomenon. They define these concepts and their relationships, creating a structured overview of the Theory.  

5) Operationalisation : This step involves defining how the key concepts will be measured or observed in empirical research. Operationalization is essential for designing experiments or studies that test the Theory's hypotheses.  

6) Testing and empirical research : Psychological Theories must be tested through empirical research. Researchers design experiments, observational studies, surveys, or other research methods to gather data that can either support or challenge the Theory. The data collected help researchers evaluate the validity and applicability of the Theory. 

7) Data analysis : After collecting data, researchers analyze it to determine whether the results align with the Theory's predictions and hypotheses. Various statistical and analytical methods are employed to draw meaningful conclusions.  

8) Refinement and revision : If the empirical research reveals that the Theory needs adjustments or improvements, researchers refine or revise the Theory accordingly. This process may involve modifying the Theorys concepts, relationships, or assumptions based on the new evidence. 

9) Peer review and validation : Psychological Theories are subject to peer review by experts in the field. Other researchers assess the Theory's rigor, methodology, and findings to ensure its validity and reliability. Validation from the scientific community is crucial for the Theory's acceptance and credibility.  

10) Publication and dissemination : If a Theory withstands empirical testing and peer review, it is typically published in academic journals or books, making it accessible to the wider scientific community. Dissemination allows other researchers to build upon the Theory and conduct further research. 

11) Application and practical use : Once a psychological Theory is established and validated, it can have practical applications. It may inform therapeutic interventions, educational strategies, policy development, or other real-world practices.  

12) Integration and synthesis : Over time, psychological Theories contribute to the broader body of knowledge in psychology. Researchers may integrate and synthesize multiple Theories to form a more comprehensive understanding of complex psychological phenomena. 

It's important to note that the formulation of psychological Theories is an iterative process. Theories may be refined, expanded, or even replaced as new evidence and insights emerge. This process of ongoing investigation and Theory development is crucial for the advancement of the field of psychology and our understanding of human behavior and mental processes. 

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Examples of Psychological Theories  

1) Classical conditioning:  Classical conditioning, formulated by Ivan Pavlov, is a fundamental behaviourist Theory. It explains how associations between stimuli can lead to learned responses. Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (like a bell) paired with a naturally occurring stimulus (like food) could eventually elicit a conditioned response (salivation) even in the absence of the natural impulse. This Theory has widespread applications, from understanding phobias to marketing strategies.   

2) Operant conditioning:  B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning Theory focuses on how consequences shape behaviour. It posits that behaviours followed by rewards (reinforcement) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by punishments are less likely to be repeated. This Theory is crucial in understanding how behaviours are acquired and modified, influencing fields like education and behaviour therapy. 

3) Psychoanalytic Theory:  Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic Theory delves into the unconscious mind's influence on behaviour. It suggests unconscious desires, conflicts, and motivations drive behaviour and psychological experiences. Concepts like the id, ego, superego, and defence mechanisms explain personality development and intrapsychic dynamics. 

4) Cognitive development:  Jean Piaget's cognitive development Theory focuses on how children's thinking evolves as they interact with their environment. He proposed four stages of cognitive development which describes how children acquire cognitive skills, problem-solving abilities, and the capacity to think abstractly. 

5) Social cognitive Theory:  Bandura's social cognitive Theory stresses on the role of observation and modelling in learning. It suggests that individuals learn by observing others' behaviours, outcomes, and consequences. Bandura's Bobo doll experiments highlighted how children imitate aggressive behaviours they witness, underscoring the impact of social context on learning. 

6) Hierarchy of needs:  Abraham Maslow's needs hierarchy Theory outlines a pyramid of human needs, ranging from physiological conditions to self-actualisation. This Theory posits that people strive to meet basic needs before pursuing higher-level goals, which has implications for motivation, personal growth, and well-being. 

7) Attachment Theory:  Attachment Theory, constructed by John Bowlby, explores the emotional bonds formed between infants and their caregivers. It suggests that these early attachments influence later emotional and social development. Secure attachments lead to healthy relationships, while insecure attachments may result in difficulties with trust and intimacy. 

8) Five-factor model:  The Five Factor Model is a prominent trait Theory of personality that identifies five broad dimensions, which are, Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. These traits provide a framework for describing individual differences in personality and behaviour across various contexts. 

9) Ecological systems Theory : Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems Theory emphasises the interconnectedness between individuals and their environment. It identifies multiple systems influencing development and behaviour, from immediate family to broader cultural and societal contexts. 

10) Cognitive-Behavioural Theory (CBT):  Cognitive-behavioural Theory integrates cognitive processes and behavioural principles. It suggests that thoughts, emotions, and behaviours are interconnected. CBT identifies and modifies negative thought patterns to promote healthier feelings and behaviours. It is widely used in psychotherapy. 

The Evolution of Psychological Theories  

The evolution of psychological Theories has been a dynamic and ongoing process over the past centuries. As our understanding of the human mind and behavior has deepened, psychological Theories have evolved and adapted to encompass new findings, perspectives, and paradigms. Here's a brief overview of the key stages in the evolution of psychological Theories: 

Early Philosophical Roots (Ancient Greece to 17th Century):  

The earliest psychological inquiries were philosophical in nature. Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle explored topics related to the mind, consciousness, and the nature of the self. 

Descartes' dualism, which separated the mind (the thinking self) from the body (the physical self), laid the groundwork for discussions of the mind-body relationship. 

Emergence of Empirical Research (18th Century):  

The Enlightenment period brought about a focus on empiricism and observation. Philosophers like John Locke emphasized the importance of sensory experience and observation as sources of knowledge. 

Structuralism and Functionalism (Late 19th Century):  

Wilhelm Wundt is often credited with establishing the first psychology laboratory in 1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline. Edward Titchener's structuralism aimed to analyze the structure of consciousness, focusing on identifying and describing basic elements of thought. William James' functionalism emphasized the study of mental processes in terms of their adaptive functions and contributions to survival. 

Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Theories (Late 19th to Early 20th Century):  

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic Theory introduced the idea that unconscious processes significantly influence human behavior. This Theory revolutionized thinking about the mind but was later critiqued and modified. 

Behaviorism (Early to Mid-20th Century):  

Behaviorism, founded by John B. Watson and developed by B.F. Skinner, dominated psychology during the early and mid-20th century. Behaviorism focused on observable behavior and the role of reinforcement and conditioning in shaping human conduct. 

Cognitive Revolution (1950s to 1960s):  

The cognitive revolution shifted the focus of psychology back to the study of mental processes. Researchers like George Miller and Ulric Neisser emphasized topics such as memory, perception, problem-solving, and language. 

Humanistic Psychology (1950s to 1960s):  

Humanistic psychology, led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, emphasized human potential, self-actualization, and personal growth, contrasting with the more behaviorally focused paradigms of the time. 

Social and Cultural Psychology (20th Century):  

The 20th century witnessed the development of social psychology and cultural psychology, which explored how social interactions, group dynamics, and cultural factors influence human behavior and identity. 

Biological and Evolutionary Psychology (Late 20th Century to Present) : 

The late 20th century saw a surge in research into the biological basis of behavior, including genetics, brain structure, and neurochemistry. Evolutionary psychology examined how human behavior and cognition may be shaped by evolutionary processes. 

Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches (Late 20th Century to Present) : 

Cognitive-behavioral Theories, which integrate cognitive and behavioral perspectives, became prominent in psychology. They emphasize the role of thoughts, beliefs, and conditioning in shaping behavior and emotions. 

Contemporary Psychological Theories (Present):  

Today, psychological Theories continue to evolve, incorporating findings from neuroscience, technology, and cross-disciplinary research. These Theories address a wide range of topics, including mental health, social behavior, cognition, and motivation. 

The field of psychology is characterized by its adaptability and openness to new ideas.

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Conclusion  

Psychological Theories illuminate the human experience from diverse angles. It is, therefore, important to understand "What are Psychological Theories". From the foundational roots of structuralism and behaviourism to the contemporary vistas of neuroscience and positive Psychology, these Theories have adapted to the changing currents of science and society. Through them, we glimpse the fascinating interplay between nature and nurture, biology and environment, conscious and unconscious. 

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Psychology of Personality: Theories Essay

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Introduction

Individuals convey different psychological lives depending on their environment, social status, among other factors. Nonetheless, just a few psychological behaviors are noticed easily. These include personality, among others. Personality defines the whole mental organization of humans at every stage of their development.

In this regard, various theorists, psychologists and psycho-socialists, as well as psychoanalysts have proposed several theories that they feel describe human behavior and personality. These theorists include Freud, Fromm, Erickson, Bandura, Skinner, Allport, and Rogers, among others. The theories they postulated include psychosexual theory, which was done by Freud and psychosocial theory, which was proposed by Erickson.

Others include behavioral analysis, by Skinner, Bandura’s social cognitive analysis, Allport’s ideas of the psychologically healthy personality, Adler’s Individual Psychology, Rogers’ “person of tomorrow” and Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis. Some of these theories are complex to understand as they sometimes vary in results depending on the individual. This paper will explore the similarities and differences of pairs of these theories as well as my views on them (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Psychology of personality

Personality psychology is usually defined in terms of mental system of an individual. Moreover, the primary concern of personality is on the most noticeable parts of human’s psychological life. The noticeable parts of an individual form its main elements. Several definitions have come up to describe personality psychology. Most of these have mainly focused on the mental state of individuals. They try to bring out a description of the overall mental system or organization.

It may therefore refer to the complete organization of mentality of an individual at any stage of his/her development. It forms the sense of being human. Every individual conveys some form of personality. Among those usually shown concerns people who are sad or happy, dull or smart, and apathetic or energetic, among others. In essence, personality concerns itself with the pattern of operation of mental systems in individuals (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality versus Erikson’s psychosocial theory of personality

Freud postulated his theory on psychosexual development with emphasis on people as pleasure seekers. According to him, people come into the world as seekers of pleasure. He points out that these pleasures are sought from erogenous zones. The zones are wide and require further categorization.

He categorizes the theory of psychosexual development into two ideas. These are the fact that one’s childhood experiences determines his future, that is a child’s first few years determines his whole life. This is mainly because the childhood experiences act as a blueprint to future functions. In addition he talks of the fact that development gives a story of how individuals can handle impulses that are antisocial through ways that are sociable. These are categorized in fixation and reaction formation (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality

Freud states that people come into the world to seek pleasure. He proposed 5 stages of development, which he felt that people go through, even though he also stated that most people ended up tied to one stage of development than others. The stages of development he gives for this are the oral stage, Anal, Phallic, latency and genital.

The oral stage occurs between birth and one year. In this stage, one may get frustrated at waiting on others or depending on them. A fixation at this state would mean extreme use of oral stimulation. These may include excessive drinking, cigarettes, among others.

The second stage is Anal, which occurs between two to three years. Children are introduced to rules that they are to follow as well as regulations. Libido is therefore focused anally, leading to stinginess, messiness, or stubbornness, among others. These results are only achieved when one remains fixated at this stage. The third stage (phallic) starts between 4-5 years and is characterized with boys’ sexual desire for their mothers, combined with fear of the father’s suspicion and punishment.

This phase of phallic stage is known as Oedipus conflict. It is then followed by castration anxiety. In this phase, the boy ends up renouncing his sexual feelings for his mother for fear of punishment by his father. He then becomes the father’s friend and hopes to have relations with a woman like his father, some day (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

For girls, it is slightly different in the phallic stage, this is because they develop desire for penis and thinks that their mothers are penis less and therefore unworthy. However, just as the boys renounce their desire for mothers, girls also renounce their desire for fathers. The fourth stage is Latency, which starts from about age 7 to puberty. The stage is also known as a period of rest as there is no significant developmental occurrences.

The fifth and last, involves genital developments, which starts at puberty. The child begins to utilize the roles of libido and genitals. However, these feelings act as a source of anxiety since they remind them of feelings for their parents in earlier stages (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Erikson’s psychosocial theory of personality

Erickson provided one of the best known stages of development in personality psychology. His main emphasis is on ego identity which is identified as a sense of self awareness. In this regard, Erickson postulates eight stages of development. These are majorly on conflicts. They include Trust vs. mistrust, Autonomy vs. Doubt and shame, Inferiority vs. industry, confusion vs. identity, isolation vs. intimacy, stagnation vs. generativity and integrity vs. Despair (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Similarities

The two theorists have several similarities. These include the fact that just like Freud, Erickson believed that personality involves several stages of development (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Differences

The two theories also have points of divergence. For instance, Freud speaks of 5 stages of development while Erickson talks of 8 stages of development (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Skinner’s Behavioral analysis versus Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Skinner was one of the pioneers of behavioral analysis in his time. He spent his time on physiology and emphasized the need for experimental results as opposed to observation of phenomena studied. He therefore placed much of his behavioral analysis methods on control of experimental variables.

On the other hand, Bandura emphasizes on observation learning in his concept of social cognitive approach. He puts more efforts on the social origins of individual’s behavior. In addition to this, he considers the contributions to this behavior that arises from cognitive thought.

His theory on social cognitive approach diverges from the common theories that usually associate cognitive factors with human functioning. These theories usually convey cognitive factors to function in the absence of direct enforcement. Enforcement of laws and regulations in a society as well as punishment of those who violate it proves more relevant to performance than acquisition according to Bandura (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Skinner’s Behavioral analysis

Skinner emphasized on control of experimental variables as opposed to observation of phenomenon. Through this, he was able to device apparatus that could control some specific behaviors of rats. Skinner was also able to distinguish his method of behavioral analysis from stimulus response postulated by Pavlov.

This he did by first acknowledging Pavlov’s work and then emphasizing on operant conditioning. In addition, Skinner tried his best to use his theories on making a better world. In this, he used his theory on operant technique the emphasized positive reinforcement (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Bandura emphasizes on observation learning in his concept of social cognitive approach. He puts more efforts on the social origins of individual’s behavior. In addition to this, he considers the contributions to this behavior that arises from cognitive thought. His theory on social cognitive approach diverges from the common theories that usually associate cognitive factors with human functioning.

These theories usually convey cognitive factors to function in the absence of direct enforcement. Enforcement of laws and regulations in a society as well as punishment of those who violate it proves more relevant to performance than acquisition according to Bandura (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Both theories of Bandura and Skinner dismiss performance through simple observation learning and instead focus on control as in Skinner’s theory and reinforcements as in Bandera’s theory (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

While Bandura emphasizes on enforcements such as laws to achieve performance and in the process utilize his approach of social cognitive theory, Skinner emphasizes on control of experimental variables behavioral analysis (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Allport’s ideas of the psychologically healthy personality versus Rogers’ “person of tomorrow”

Gordon Allport’s main point of emphasis was on the uniqueness of every individual. He therefore used this to develop his theory of personality that stressed on making a psychologically healthy personality. To achieve this, he had to differ with other theorists, especially those who professed non-humanistic positions.

However, Allport also acknowledged other theorists by accepting a number of them. Rogers, on the other hand, is widely known for his client-centered therapy. He came up with a format if/then which je used in developing his theory (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Allport’s ideas of the psychologically healthy personality

The main point of emphasis for Allport was on the uniqueness of every individual. He therefore used this to develop his theory of personality that stressed on making a psychologically healthy personality. In his theory of a psychologically healthy personality, Allport believed that these individuals (with psychologically healthy personality) were motivated by present. This is the commonly conscious drive. In addition, he believed that these individuals sought to reduce tensions as well as renew them.

Allport also believed that individuals were capable of conveying proactive behavior. This implied that people can behave in new and creative ways that may be instrumental in shaping their growth and subsequent changes. His theory differs with the traditional nomothetic science. He therefore defines personality as a vibrant association within a person. The structures of personality as entailed by Allport are personality proprium and dispositions.

In his theory, the source of motivation for psychologically healthy personality is out of their need to fit into the new environment. They are therefore very likely to engage in the following proactive behaviors: insight and humor, realistic view of surrounding, extension of self-sense, self-acceptance, unifying philosophy of life as well as warm relationships with neighbors or other individuals (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Rogers’ “person of tomorrow”

Rogers, on the other hand, is widely known for his client-centered therapy. He came up with a format if/then which je used in developing his theory. He used his client-centered format to develop a person centered theory which emphasized on personality issues. The theory depends on two assumptions.

These are actualizing tendency as well as formative tendency. He believes that individuals have the capacity to grow and change, but only if certain favorable conditions are met. The theory therefore relies on optimism and encourages free choice, conscious motivation and uniqueness of persons, among others (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

The two theorists emphasize uniqueness of individuals when their methods are well followed. The two theories also focus on motivation which is essential in personality development (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Rogers used his if/then format, which is client centered, to develop personality, while Allport emphasizes on Morphogenic Science to develop his theory. The format used by the two theorists differs widely on their research (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

View of personality development using Adler’s Individual Psychology and Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis

Adler’s individual psychology.

Adler developed theories on birth order. He believed that the order of birth in families affected children’s personality. In this regard, he holds that first-borns undergo more problems than the rest of the children. This, according to him, is due to the sudden change in attention, after considerable pampering, when the other siblings arrive.

He also believes that the middle born children tend to have it easy as they have the luxury of trying to achieve superiority over their elders as well as remaining well above their younger siblings. The last born, on the other hand, is likely to experience major personality problems, according to Adler. This is because they get more pampering than even the oldest children do. They are therefore significantly inferior to their siblings and unprepared to face the problems of the world (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Fromm’s Humanistic Psychoanalysis

Fromm describes three methods that would assist an individual to escape from freedom. These are Authoritarianism, destructiveness and Automaton conformity. Fromm explains that freedom forms the greatest problems to majority of people. He also believes that freedom comes with inability to gain authority as well as an overwhelming loneliness. According to him, people employ different methods of alleviating anxiety, which may be directly linked to their opinion of freedom.

These include individualization, destructiveness, conformity and automaton as well as authoritarianism. In authoritarianism, people tend to submit to entities that they believe are greater than them to escape freedom. They may also make themselves authoritative over those who, in their opinion are enemies. These authorities may be religious, political, or social leaders or beliefs (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

View of personality development

These theories are important in establishing the forces that drive individuals. For instance, Fromm, talks of our need to escape from freedom, which leads to anxiety and loneliness. He also talks of the techniques we employ to help us manage these problems. These include destructiveness, automaton conformity, as well as authoritarianism.

In concluding, he states that people should embrace freedom, as this is the only healthy way of dealing with their problems as well as attaining individuality. This is quite important in encouraging the world to be original and unique in their activities. This will make them poses the highly needed individuality. Adler, on the other hand, talks of the drive or motivational force on individuals.

He then explains that those who desire to be important people in society feel so out of inferiority in their respective desires. If this problem exceeds, one may experience inferiority complex, which is a complete opposite of striving for superiority. This theory applies to individuals who know their drives; the knowledge of what drives an individual helps him /her manage the goals. It also helps save people from developing inferiority complex due to unattainable objectives (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Several theories have been brought forward to explain psychology of personality. These include individual psychology and humanistic psychoanalytic, psychosexuality, among others. These theories were developed by various theorists such as Freud, Adler, Erickson, Bandura, Rogers, Allport and Fromm, among others. The paper analyses various theories on psychology of personality including similarities and differences of their pairs, as well as my views on them (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 12-67).

Reference List

Feist, J. & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of personality (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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Freud's Theories: Significance in Contemporary Psychology

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Both Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson believed that personality is developed in certain fixed stages. However, Erikson disagreed with some parts of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development so he modified this theory by creating [...]

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An Introduction and Brief Overview of Psychoanalysis

Martin tarzian.

1 Psychiatry, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Mariana Ndrio

2 Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Adegbenro O Fakoya

3 Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, USA

The field of psychology has been shaped by the views and perspectives of Sigmund Freud and his former students: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These psychologists and their respective schools of thought provide distinct views on psychology and influences on personality and psychosocial development. The foundation for psychoanalysis was laid by Freud, his work on the unconscious mind, and his emphasis on early childhood experiences. His students also made substantial contributions that expanded, sharpened, and challenged his theories. This review will begin by highlighting the work of Sigmund Freud; it will then compare his theories with the theories of his students. This review will introduce and bring attention to the most important figures of psychoanalysis and give a brief overview of their theories.

Introduction and background

Sigmund Freud (Born May 6th, 1856) was an Austrian neurologist widely known as the father of psychoanalysis. His revolutionary theories, thoughts, and challenges to the field of psychology have changed how theorists understand the mind and how psychologists treat their patients [ 1 ]. Throughout his life, he worked fervently and tirelessly to advance his theories, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing until he died in 1939. Today, most clinical psychologists and psychiatrists roll their eyes when Freud’s ideas are brought up. However, his impact on shaping the theoretical and practical approaches to the human mind and reasoning for behavior cannot be understated or forgotten [ 2 ].

Freud attended medical school at the University of Vienna and graduated as a neurologist [ 1 , 2 ]. He was interested in the brain’s anatomy and how the nervous system works in relation to the human body. Time and time again, his research led him to query and ponder the relationship between the human mind and the physical ailments his patients would experience [ 3 ]. He began to question whether the symptomology he witnessed in his patients came from the illness within the brain or the mind. As time passed, Freud developed a passion for understanding the complexities of the mind and psyche, eventually leading him to pursue his pioneering work of psychoanalysis [ 3 ].

As his passion and interest in the human mind increased, Sigmund Freud shifted from treating neurological diseases to treating individuals suffering from psychological issues such as depression and anxiety [ 3 ]. This switch gradually occurred in the late 1800s. By the 1900s, Freud was solely focused on using psychoanalysis to explain anomalies of human nature [ 3 , 4 ]. While working at the University of Vienna, his professor, Dr. Josef Breuer, introduced Sigmund Freud to a fascinating case. The patient, referred to as “Anna O,” experienced a range of physical symptoms such as visual disturbances, hallucinations, partial paralysis, and speech problems with no apparent physical cause [ 4 ]. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms improved when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness, which he called the “Cathartic Method” [ 4 ]. Unsurprisingly, Sigmund Freud, who was already fascinated with anomalies of the human mind, feverishly began exploring the possible psychological phenomena that could explain Anna Os’s symptomology. Later, in 1895, Freud and Breuer published a book discussing Anna’s case and other similar clinical cases called “Studies in Hysteria.” This case is significant because it laid the foundation for developing Freud’s influential ideas about psychoanalysis [ 5 , 6 ].

Continuing his work with Breuer, Freud finally derived his groundbreaking theory about “The Unconscious,” proposing that repressed memories and desires influence behavioral and emotional states. A revolutionary concept at the time, this theory would permanently leave its imprint on psychological thinking for centuries to come [ 6 , 7 ]. This time can also be considered the period when Freud abandoned neurology as a field and focused solely on practicing psychoanalysis. While initially he used the method of hypnosis taught to him by Charcot, Freud recognized that he needed a better way of addressing his patients’ unconscious desires and memories. Thus, he developed the “Free Association,” in which patients were encouraged to speak freely about their thoughts and feelings without censorship or self-editing [ 7 , 8 ]. Through this technique, Freud believed that he uncovered the unconscious thoughts and memories that were the root cause of many psychological phenomena and anomalies [ 7 , 8 ].

In 1899, Sigmund Freud released his groundbreaking book “The Interpretation of Dreams.” He proposed a new theory on the meaning behind dreams and how they relate to the unconscious [ 9 - 11 ]. In his book, he argued that dreams portal into humankind’s hidden desires and emotions and provide insight into any underlying conflicts within the unconscious mind. At the start of the 1900s, Freud had established himself as the master of addressing the unconscious [ 1 - 3 ]. As time passed, his theories continued to grow more rambunctious and ambitious in their claims of explaining human behavior. His work revolutionized how we view the human psyche and opened many avenues for further exploration [ 9 ].

In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud had established himself at the frontier of psychological thinking and began writing about the Oedipus complex [ 1 - 3 ]. This theory claims that young children have an unconscious sexual desire toward the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipal complex has come to be known as Sigmund Freud’s most controversial theory and is often joked about when referenced in popular media [ 12 ]. He also formulated the tripartite theory involving the id, ego, and superego - a theory still taught today to explain different facets of the human psyche. Over the next decade, Freud dedicated himself to improving these theories [ 12 ]. In 1902, Sigmund Freud formed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and it quickly became a popular hub for the exploration and development of his theories. He also began instructing other mental health professionals in psychoanalysis, leading to its increased spread across Europe and the United States in the following years [ 1 , 2 ]. His work at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, along with his time spent teaching, are regarded as the reasons that psychoanalysis quickly globalized at the turn of the 20th century.

Despite the initial success of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories were controversial and faced criticism from many quarters. Some critics accused Freud of being overly focused on sex and of exaggerating the influence of the unconscious mind. Others argued that psychoanalysis lacked scientific validity and was based on anecdotal evidence rather than empirical data [ 13 ]. Ultimately, even his students challenged him and began their own schools of thought, which we will discuss later [ 13 ]. Nevertheless, Freud’s influence on psychology and culture cannot be overstated. His theories continue to be the subject of debate and research, and psychoanalysis remains a popular and influential field of study. Freud’s discovery of psychoanalysis paved the way for a new understanding of the human mind and continues to shape our understanding of psychology and society [ 1 - 3 ].

Freud’s legacy extends beyond his contributions. His circle of inspired and loyal pupils continued to push and advance the field. Together, they have expanded the principles of psychoanalysis. These students, united in their respect and admiration for Freud, carry his ideas forward, establishing psychoanalysis as a legitimate and influential approach to understanding the human mind. By continuing to explore and apply psychoanalytic principles, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves, our actions, and the intricate workings of the human mind. This review aims to emphasize the contributions of psychoanalysis, from Sigmund Freud to his students Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney.

Freud’s Free Association Technique

Free association is the fundamental technique of addressing the unconscious in psychoanalysis. The method allows patients to freely express their thoughts, feelings, and emotions without censoring themselves. Commonly, the patient lies on a couch in the physician’s office and is made to feel very comfortable. This lowers the patient’s guard and thus the ego’s guard, allowing the mind to truly express its reservations [ 14 ]. The goal is to elicit the unconscious thoughts and memories contributing to psychological distress [ 14 ]. The theory behind free association is that unconscious thoughts and emotions may be painful, embarrassing, or socially unacceptable and thus remain submerged in the unconscious [ 14 ]. The patient is lulled into a state of comfort through free association, allowing these subconscious notions to come to light [ 14 ].

By bringing these unconscious thoughts and feelings into conscious awareness, the patient is allowed to address them and understand why they may be experiencing distress from them. The therapist can encourage the patient to talk about dreams, childhood memories, or anything that may bring the patient’s underlying issues to conscious awareness [ 15 ]. The therapist must listen without interrupting or imposing their own ideas, thus creating a safe space to express themselves openly and speak honestly [ 15 ].

Free association is not without its limitations and criticism. One of the criticisms of free association is that it relies too much on the therapist’s ability to interpret the patient’s unconscious thoughts and feelings. This is subjective, and different therapists may interpret the exact words or phrases differently [ 16 ]. Take, for instance, a dream depicting a tiger pursuing a gazelle in the depths of the jungle. One therapist might interpret the tiger as a symbol of the patient’s personal strength and confidence, while another therapist could perceive the gazelle as a representation of the patient’s apprehension regarding vulnerability to external forces. Determining which interpretation is objectively accurate is inherently elusive if not impossible. Another challenge with free association is that it is time-consuming and arduous. Patients may struggle to access their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and/or emotions, and it may take several months or even years to express themselves honestly and freely [ 16 ]. Despite these limitations, free association remains a fascinating approach to both therapy and addressing the unconscious. While it has limitations, free association remains an interesting tool in treating psychological disorders. It is a pivotal technique used by Sigmund Freud and other followers of psychoanalysis [ 15 ].

The Oedipal complex

First proposed by Sigmund Freud, the Oedipal complex is an essential concept within psychoanalysis. According to Freud, the Oedipal complex is a psychological phenomenon occurring between three and six in otherwise healthy children [ 17 ]. This desire is theorized to originate from the child’s need to satisfy sexual instincts, which are repressed by social norms and familial expectations [ 18 - 20 ]. It represents a child’s unconscious desire to own the same-sex parent and eliminate the other, whom they view as competition. The child develops hostility, jealousy, and anger toward the same-sex parent while experiencing love and sexual attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex [ 18 - 20 ].

The Oedipal complex has been criticized and debated outside and within the psychoanalytic community. Some argue that the Oedipal complex is a culturally specific concept that does not apply to all societies, and it reinforces gender stereotypes and heteronormativity [ 21 ]. Despite the ongoing debate, the Oedipal complex remains a central concept in psychoanalytic theory and continues to shift and influence the understanding of human psychology, desire, and development [ 21 ].

The tripartite theory of the psyche

The id represents our primitive impulses and desires, including sexual and aggressive urges. According to Freud, the id is the source of our unconscious thoughts and wishes and operates on the principle of immediate gratification [ 22 ]. For instance, consider a situation where one child observes another child enjoying their favorite snack. In response, the first child impulsively snatches the snack and swiftly consumes it. This impulsive act reflects the id’s instincts and desires. On the other hand, the ego serves as the rational and conscious aspect of the psyche, acting as a mediator between the id’s demands and the realities of the external world [ 22 ]. Its role is to satisfy the id’s needs in a socially acceptable manner, avoiding negative consequences. In our previous example, the child witnessing another child devouring their favorite snack would refrain from forcibly taking it, as doing so would result in punishment from an authority figure. Instead, the child might negotiate, offering a piece of their own snack in exchange for a portion of the other child’s snack, thus achieving their goal in a socially acceptable manner. Lastly, the superego symbolizes the internalization of societal norms and values [ 23 ]. It functions as a moral compass, determining right from wrong based on cultural and ethical standards. The superego enforces moral principles and may elicit feelings of guilt or shame when one’s actions violate those standards [ 22 , 23 ]. In the hypothetical scenario, the child may be tempted to steal the snack but recalls the moral teachings of their favorite cartoon character, which emphasizes that stealing is morally wrong. As a result, the child refrains from stealing the snack, influenced by the cultural impact of their beloved cartoon character [ 23 ].

Some argue that Freud’s tripartite theory oversimplifies human thought and behavior [ 24 ]. According to his theory, only three components underlie all the behavior a person will ever exhibit in their lifetime. His theory does not allow change or growth as an individual would continuously operate on at least one of these three principles [ 24 ]. According to Freud’s theory, humans are inherently selfish creatures who are always trying to manipulate a situation to attain their desires that will not bring punishment or pain [ 23 - 25 ]. Despite these criticisms, the id, ego, and superego concept contributes significantly to psychoanalysis [ 24 ]. It emphasizes the dynamic relationship between our primitive desires, rational consciousness, and societal norms. While it has been criticized for its narrow focus and deterministic view of the human psyche, it remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis.

The secret world of dreams: Sigmund Freud’s interpretation and analysis

“The Interpretation of Dreams” (published in 1899) is considered one of the most influential books. In “The Interpretation of Dreams,” Freud provides insights into his theories about the mechanisms that underlie the unconscious mind [ 25 ]. He argued that the content of dreams is symbolic and that it is necessary to decode the symbolism to understand what the dream truly represents [ 25 ].

For Freud, dreams are a way for people to address their unconscious wishes. These wishes are unacceptable to our conscious mind and thus remain trapped in the recesses of the subconscious [ 26 ]. During sleep, the boundary between consciousness and unconsciousness becomes blurred, and therefore, we are allowed to address our repressed emotions within our dreams [ 26 , 27 ]. Freud believed that the manifest content of the dream (what we remember upon waking) was a disguise for the latent content (the true meaning of the dream) [ 26 ]. For example, in a dream where a person is flying, flight represents the desire to escape from a difficult situation or a yearning to experience freedom. A dream about a mouse might represent repressed feelings of inadequacy or weakness compared to others. Freud argued that dreams are a means of processing unresolved psychological conflicts. Thus, for Freud, dreams are a form of therapy that allows people to work through their difficult emotions and subconscious issues in the comfort of their own beds [ 26 , 27 ].

Unlike his other theories, Freud’s dream interpretation theory was the center of controversy. Some argued that his ideas were too focused on sexual desires and his approach was too subjective to the interpreter [ 27 ]. How can one tell if a dream has some deep underlying meaning or is just a dream? Others questioned the validity of interpreting dreams as a means of uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions [ 27 ]. Like the tiger stalking the gazelle example discussed earlier, two therapists may interpret the same dream differently. There is no objective way to determine whose interpretation is correct. Despite these criticisms, Freud’s theory of dream interpretation remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis. It has been used to gain insights into the workings of the unconscious mind and to treat various psychological disorders, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder [ 27 ].

Going rogue with the mind: the psychoanalytical mavericks who challenged Freud

In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was not only established as its own discipline but was now being taken to new frontiers. Freud’s original ideas were challenged and built upon by a new generation of psychoanalytical theorists, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These theorists emphasized different aspects of the human unconscious. The unconscious was used to address the mental health concerns of patients worldwide. In addition, therapy and healing became a central aspect of psychoanalysis.

Jung vs. Freud: even the deepest relationships cannot escape the idiosyncrasies of the ego

Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and former student of Freud who developed his own Analytical Psychology theory. While he was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, his ideas eventually diverged from Freud’s, and the two men had a falling out [ 28 ]. Jung viewed classical psychoanalysis as a perspective that does not foster individual growth, nor did it provide the framework for the commonality of all people. Analytical Psychology is a psychological theory and framework that explores the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of Individuation [ 28 , 29 ]. Carl Jung recognized the existence of a shared reservoir of universal human experiences and symbols, known as the collective unconscious, which influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through archetypes [ 30 , 31 ]. Individuation, a central concept in Jungian psychology, involves integrating both conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s personality to achieve wholeness and self-realization [ 31 ]. Like Freud, Jung saw dreams as a gateway to the unconscious mind [ 28 ]. Overall, Jungian psychology offers a holistic approach to understanding the human mind. Jung’s approach fosters personal growth and embraces a journey toward self-discovery. The following section will highlight the similarities and differences between Analytical Psychology and Freud’s Classical Psychoanalysis.

Similarities Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of the unconscious: Both Jung and Freud agreed that the unconscious mind plays a vital role in shaping our behaviors and experiences. They also believed that unconscious conflicts lead to psychological distress. Finally, they agreed that exploring the unconscious through free association could lead to spiritual and psychological healing [ 28 ]. While sharing these foundational beliefs with Sigmund Freud, Jung expanded upon them and introduced his own distinctive concepts. Jung argued that the unconscious had various aspects and was not solely driven by sexual motivations, as proposed by Freud. Rather the existence of a collective unconscious, a reservoir of shared human experiences, emotions, and symbols that shape our thoughts and behaviors through archetypes (we will discuss archetypes shortly), explained much of our behavior, if not all [ 29 ]. He saw the unconscious as a rich source of wisdom, creativity, and spiritual insight. Freud’s focus on repressed memories and painful truths about ourselves vastly differed from Jung’s, who explored the deepest layers of the psyche to integrate and harmonize conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s self to achieve personal growth and wholeness [ 29 ]. Jung’s views on the unconscious were not limited to pathology. Still, they encompassed a broader approach to understanding the human mind and its relation to universal themes, the cosmos, and archetypal patterns [ 29 ].

The use of dream analysis: Both Jung and Freud agreed that dreams are a window into the unconscious mind. They also decided that analyzing the symbols and themes within someone’s dreams could uncover repressed thoughts and feelings causing pain and strife in that person’s life [ 28 ]. Carl Jung was profoundly interested in dream analysis. His exploration of the unconscious through dream analysis was driven by his desire to bridge a gap between religion and science [ 29 ]. In his book “Memories, Dreams, Reflections,” Jung discusses how religion, science, and the unconscious are intertwined. He compares the term “the unconscious” with Gods, religions, and numinosity that have been present throughout human history [ 29 ]. Jung acknowledges that certain experiences, such as dreams and inspirations, arise spontaneously and cannot be attributed solely to conscious effort. He suggested that these experiences emanate from the human psyche, a demon, a god, or the unconscious [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the unconscious contains an unknown realm, parallel to reality as we know it, a vast expanse beneath the surface of consciousness. He acknowledged the limitations of scientific knowledge about the unconscious and the futility of objectively studying the workings of the unconscious. Like Freud, Jung’s approach to dream analysis sought to uncover the deeper meanings and symbolic messages embedded in dreams, considering them valuable sources of insight into the unconscious aspects of the individual’s psyche [ 29 ]. He embraced the subjective nature of dream analysis and accepted that although not perfect, it offers much to the therapist in addressing the psychological issues of their patients [ 29 ].

The emphasis on the therapist-patient relationship: Both Jung and Freud believed that the relationship between therapist and patient was key to the success of psychotherapy. They agreed that the therapist is a guide to help navigate unconscious conflicts and promote healing [ 28 ]. Carl Jung heavily emphasized the therapeutic alliance. He saw the relationship between the therapist and the patient as a crucial determinant for facilitating healing and growth. According to Jung, the therapist’s ability to establish a strong connection and rapport with the patient is paramount for a successful therapeutic process. He believed that a trusting and collaborative alliance allows the patient to feel safe, understood, and supported, creating a conducive environment for exploration and self-discovery [ 29 ]. His stress on creating a safe haven for patients to express themselves freely goes hand in hand with Freud’s free association.

Emphasis on the therapeutic alliance as a partnership is central to analytical therapy. The therapist must provide guidance, support, and overall compassion. Encouraging active engagement is crucial to success, according to Jung [ 28 , 29 ]. He underscored the value of empathy, listening actively, and caring. By demonstrating respect, acceptance, and a non-judgmental attitude, the therapist creates an environment that allows the patient to freely express their thoughts, real feelings, and true emotions [ 29 ]. The similarities between Freud’s emphasis on creating a safe environment and Jung’s emphasis on empathy highlight that Jung’s theories, although unique from Freud’s, remain rooted in classical psychoanalysis. Jung also believed that the therapeutic alliance provides the foundation for exploring the unconscious aspects of the patient’s psyche. He recognized that the unconscious holds valuable insights and symbols that can shed light on the patient’s inner world. Through collaboration and trust, the therapist can guide the patient into navigating and understanding the facets of their psyche. Ultimately uncovering hidden patterns, unresolved conflicts, and potentiating self-growth were the goals of Carl Jung [ 29 ].

Differences Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The structure of the psyche: While both Jung and Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the psyche as consisting of the id, ego, and superego (as discussed earlier). Jung, in contrast, saw the psyche as consisting of three different layers: the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. According to Jung, the conscious mind is just the tip of the iceberg and is limited in its ability to understand our true nature [ 29 ]. The conscious is what we are actively aware of and thinking about at the moment. The personal unconscious is the second layer of consciousness, which consists of all the experiences, memories, and feelings that are not within our immediate awareness. For example, a person may have an upsetting and recurring dream which initially appears to have no meaning. However, upon exploration in analytical therapy, the meaning behind this recurring dream may be discovered and addressed. This idea is very similar to Freud’s latent and manifest dreams. The personal unconscious also includes forgotten memories, repressed thoughts, and feelings we have not fully processed or are ready to acknowledge. Jung believed that the personal unconscious is a fundamental part of our psyche that could house the positive and negative components of the self [ 29 ]. The third and deepest layer of consciousness is the collective unconscious. Here we find the archetypes, symbols, and universal experiences that all humans share, regardless of dominion. Here, according to Jung, is the foundation of human thinking. It is the source of our deepest spiritual and creative impulses and what defines us as humans [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the collective unconscious was responsible for producing myths, fairy tales, and other universal symbols found in cultures and civilizations worldwide. Even day-to-day interactions can be explained with Jung’s theory. For example, a traffic light that uses green to symbolize go and red to symbolize stop may be defined by some deeply shared human positive emotion toward the color green and reservation to the color red. He believed that by tapping into this deeper layer of consciousness, individuals could better understand their psyche and the world around them [ 29 ].

What motivates people: Freud believed that repressed sexual desires universally lead to psychological distress and are the primary motivation source for human behavior [ 12 , 13 ]. Analytical psychologists argue that sexual desire is just one aspect of a broader human desire termed “Life Energy.” While acknowledging that sexual conflicts may be a source of distress, Jungian psychologists do not see sexual desire as the essential source of conflict for most people [ 28 , 29 ]. Instead, Life Energy is the primary psychic need that motivates us all to grow and pursue fulfilling lives [ 30 ]. Jung saw Life Energy as the fundamental aspect that drives individuals toward self-realization and wholeness [ 29 ]. Life Energy encompasses all forms of psychic energy, including creative needs, spiritual pursuits, and intelligence desires [ 28 , 29 ]. Jung saw the expression of life energy as being closely tied to a process he termed “Individuation,” which involves the integration of all aspects of self to reach a state of peace and tranquility [ 29 ]. He believed that Life Energy drives all humans toward pursuing Individuation. Life Energy manifests itself in various ways, such as creative pursuits, meaningful relationships, and spiritual practice. Jung saw the suppression of Life Energy as harmful to our well-being. People who suppress their Life Energy may experience physical or psychological symptoms [ 28 , 29 ]. Thus, unlike Freud, who viewed the unconscious as a place of shame and distress for his patients, Jung saw the unconscious as a gateway to reaching a state of Individuation or idealistic self.

Archetypes: According to Carl Jung, archetypes are recurring universal human experience themes rooted within the collective unconscious [ 29 ]. Archetypes represent fundamental aspects of human existence, such as characters, symbols, or situations, and they are shared across different cultures and periods [ 30 , 31 ]. For example, weddings have occurred in cultures worldwide despite no prior interaction between most cultures. It would seem then that getting married is a normal aspect of being human, which is shared among the collective unconscious of all people. Archetypes, therefore, arise from the innate psychological predispositions of humankind. They can manifest in arts, religion, literature, mythology, and poetry [ 32 ]. For example, the “Hero Archetype” has existed in numerous cultures throughout history. This is the story of a protagonist who must accomplish a quest to attain a goal, from Babylon’s Gilgamesh to today’s Hollywood movies. No culture has ever existed without a story that involves the “Hero Archetype.” Archetypes provide organizing patterns of thinking that shape our thoughts. Archetypes reflect shared human nature, providing a framework for interpreting the world [ 32 ]. By recognizing and working with archetypes, psychologists can gain insight into integrating shared unconscious elements into conscious awareness to provide effective therapy [ 30 - 32 ].

Individuation: Individuation is a central theme in analytical psychology. It refers to the psychological process of integrating all the aspects of oneself and thus realizing one’s true potential [ 31 ]. It requires putting together the conscious and unconscious elements of the mind. For Individuation to occur, one must strive to develop a unique identity and establish a harmony between conscious thoughts and unconscious desires and instincts [ 31 , 32 ]. It is a lifelong process that involves self-reflection, self-discovery, and self-acceptance, in that order [ 31 ]. Individuation goes beyond conforming to societal expectations. Jung highlights the need to explore inner depths and integrate the repressed aspects of the self no matter how shameful [ 31 ]. Through Individuation, individuals become more self-aware and authentic. The ultimate goal is to become in tune with oneself and one’s purpose. It is a journey of transformation that leads to personal fulfillment and a more meaningful life [ 30 - 33 ]. Although Sigmund Freud did acknowledge the importance of personal growth, he differed from Jung’s concept of Individuation. Freud’s goal was to alleviate psychological distress through the process of psychoanalysis. He never emphasized achieving a sense of wholeness or integration of the self [ 29 , 29 , 33 ].

While Carl Jung was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, he eventually developed his theory of analytical psychology and quickly diverged from Freud’s classical psychoanalysis. While there are a few similarities between the two, such as the emphasis on the unconscious and the use of dream analysis, there were also poignant differences, such as their views on what drives humans, the structure of the psyche, the concept of self, and the ultimate goal of humans. Freud emphasized the significance of sexual desire for driving human nature, but Carl Jung disagreed. He believed sexual needs were a small part of a vast human desire called Life Energy. Life Energy is the desire to attain Individuation, a state of self-realization. Individuation occurs when the collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and conscious work harmoniously to acknowledge all aspects of oneself.

The battle of Vienna: Adler vs. Freud - feelings of inferiority

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an Austrian psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and former student of Sigmund Freud. Like Jung, he developed his theory rooted in psychoanalysis, known as Individual Psychology. Adler began as a follower of Sigmund Freud. Similarly to Jung, he eventually developed his approach to psychoanalysis. Individual Psychology emphasizes the holistic nature of people and considers the interplay between the psychological, biological, and cultural factors for shaping feelings, thoughts, and cognition. Adler emphasizes the importance of understanding an individual’s perspective to explain why they are the way they are [ 34 , 35 ]. The Adlerian theory emphasizes personal growth and self-improvement, similar to Jungian psychology. Individual psychology, however, highlights the concept of inferiority and superiority in an individual’s development [ 34 ]. Adler heavily emphasized negative feelings from childhood stemming into the strife individuals experience in adulthood. Individual psychology offers a unique framework for understanding individuals as striving beings influenced by their social environments [ 34 , 35 ]. In this response, we will summarize Adler’s research concerning psychoanalysis, highlighting both the similarities and differences between the two approaches.

Similarities Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of childhood experiences: Both Adler and Freud agreed that early childhood experiences shape personality, self-image, and behavior in adulthood. They agreed that the therapist should help the patient explore and understand early life experiences to gain insight into their current strife [ 34 ]. Adler, just like Freud, saw childhood as pivotal. He recognized that early interactions with caregivers and the social environment impact a person’s sense of self-worth and ability to navigate life’s obstacles [ 34 ]. Adler, unlike Freud, highlighted the importance of empowering children to develop a sense of competence, confidence, and mastery of tasks. He encouraged children to overcome feelings of inferiority and contribute positively to society. Adler’s holistic approach to childhood and development emphasized the interplay between social dynamics, individual aspirations, and the cultivation of social interest as crucial factors in promoting healthy psychological growth [ 34 ].

The use of free association: Both Adler and Freud used free association to access the unconscious thoughts of their patients. They both agreed that exploring the unconscious aspects of the mind could lead to greater self-awareness and, ultimately, healing [ 34 ]. Through Adler’s observations of children affected by “organic deficiencies” (physical handicaps), he established his theories on Superiority and Inferiority. He found that children who experienced physical limitations needed to compensate and achieve a feeling of superiority over other children [ 35 ]. This striving for superiority propelled them to take on more significant challenges in life and perceive the world as enemy territory [ 35 ]. For example, someone with no arms walking behind you may be offended that you opened the door for them despite being willing to open it for anyone. Perceiving that you opened that door for them because of their organic deficiency, they would be more inclined to take on the challenge of opening the door themselves than someone with arms to prove they can. Many of the actions these children performed became part of their adaptive response to their deficiency [ 35 ]. According to Adler, these children quickly and firmly established defensive and offensive attitudes, developing antagonistic behaviors such as fighting, hesitating, stopping, and pushing [ 35 ]. Adler argued that through intense focus on themselves and their flaws, they tend to be egocentric, lacking social empathy, courage, and self-confidence, as they fear defeat more than they desire success [ 35 ]. These children actively sought out favorable situations while creating barriers to avoid confronting challenges that they may not be able to surpass [ 35 ]. These children, burdened by the inferiority of their organs, became strongly influenced by the darker aspects of life [ 35 ]. In his therapeutic work, Adler utilized free association to explore and unravel these unconscious dynamics, helping these children gain insight into their thought patterns and strategies for compensating for their deficiencies, ultimately supporting them in developing a healthier and more socially connected life [ 34 - 36 ].

The therapeutic relationship: Adler, Jung, and Freud agreed that therapeutic alliance is critical to success and change in at-risk children. They also all agreed that the therapist must establish trust and nurture a relationship based on openness and willingness to communicate. He underscored facilitating a safe space for exploration and growth [ 34 , 35 ]. According to Adler, the importance of a therapeutic alliance extends beyond the boundaries of the therapist and patient. Adler believed that therapists, social workers, and teachers all play roles in addressing the psychological issues of children and thus must work together as a team [ 35 ]. Therapists can guide children toward a more hopeful future by establishing a strong partnership with parents and collaborating with teachers. This future fosters the growth of individuals who have become accountable, aware, and willing to give back to society [ 35 ]. Adler’s emphasis on the therapeutic alliance highlights the need for a community effort to shape the development of children [ 35 ].

Differences Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: Freud saw sexual desire as the primary motivation of human behavior. Jung saw Life Energy as the ultimate drive, but Adler believed that striving for superiority was humankind’s primary motivation. Individual psychology sees people as inherently needing to overcome feelings of inferiority. Just like Jung, Adler acknowledged that sexual problems could be a source of psychological distress at times. He did not emphasize them [ 35 , 36 ]. He believed that people are motivated by a need to overcome their feelings of inferiority and thus strive for superiority. He termed this ambition the “will to power.” According to Adler, everyone experiences a sense of inferiority stemming from childhood experiences of inadequacy compared to others [ 36 ]. For example, a child who failed a math test would experience feelings of inferiority and would work extra hard to do well on the next math test to achieve a feeling of superiority. If the child continues to do poorly in math, they will carry on through life, avoiding math problems, thus preventing that feeling of being inferior. Therefore, feeling of inferiority provides all people with two choices, strive to become superior or avoid that obstacle that once made them feel inferior [ 36 ].

The concept of the unconscious: While both Adler and Freud believed in the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the unconscious as a repository for repressed thoughts and feelings that were too painful to be brought into consciousness. Adler believed the unconscious is a source of creativity and problem-solving, unlike Jung [ 37 ]. Adler did not see the need to distinguish between the conscious and unconscious realms clearly [ 37 ]. He recognized the fluidity between levels of awareness, whereby what may initially seem unconscious can be raised to consciousness through effective therapy or when it becomes relevant and necessary. Many things remain unconscious because they are not immediately appropriate or needed in conscious awareness. However, these unconscious elements can be brought into consciousness when required. Adler understood that individuals tend to focus on and consider only those aspects supporting their self-enhancement goals. Elements disturbing or challenging their viewpoint are often left aside in the unconscious [ 37 ]. For Adler, the conscious mind becomes a source of encouragement, while the unconscious holds what might disrupt or hinder the individual’s perspective. The individual’s lifestyle, to some extent, reflects the degree of narrow or broad focus in their awareness. A narrow focus may disregard or suppress aspects not aligning with their goals.

In contrast, a more general perspective allows for a more comprehensive understanding and integration of conscious and unconscious elements [ 35 ]. Adler’s views on the unconscious align with his holistic assessment of the individual. He believed the mind could not be divided into separate and antagonistic halves of the conscious and unconscious. Instead, consciousness and unconsciousness are directed by the individual’s fictional final goal, representing their ultimate purpose and self-enhancement [ 38 ]. Self-enhancement in this accord is not unlike his contemporary Carl Jung’s “Individuation,” both goals being continued self-improvement [ 31 , 32 ].

While there are similarities between self-enhancement and Individuation regarding personal growth, there are also nuances. Self-enhancement focuses on overcoming feelings of inferiority [ 37 ], emphasizing building a sense of superiority [ 37 ]. In contrast, Individuation is all about self-discovery and the journey to self-realization. Wholeness is established through incorporating all aspects of oneself [ 31 , 32 ]. Adler and Jung recognized the importance of self-actualization and fulfilling one’s potential. Ultimately, self-enhancement and Individuation represent two different approaches to growth. Self-enhancement focused on personal achievement and superiority, and Individuation focused on self-discovery, integration, and wholeness.

The concept of the self: Adler did not use the term “self” as Jung did. However, he agreed that people have a fundamental sense of self shaped by interactions with others and experiences. Thus, Adler saw the goal of therapy as helping others develop a more positive sense of self and enabling them to overcome feelings of inferiority [ 34 - 36 ]. Adler’s concept of self emphasizes the indivisibility of the mind rejecting a notion of a boundary between the conscious and unconscious. Instead, both are guided by the individual’s final goal, which drives their decision-making [ 37 ]. According to Adler, the opposition between conscious and unconscious impulses is merely a difference in means, with both aspects ultimately working toward enhancing the self. He argued that there is fluidity between levels of awareness. Thus, at one time, the unconscious may be raised to consciousness when necessary [ 37 ]. Adler recognizes that not everything must be consciously attended to at all times. Certain thoughts and feelings may remain unconscious until they become relevant or required to undergo a course of action [ 37 ]. The conscious mind focuses on thoughts, feelings, and experiences that support and reinforce the patient. The unconscious mind possesses ideas and feelings that disrupt or challenge their perspective of themselves [ 37 ]. Overall, Adler’s self-concept highlights the interconnectedness of conscious and unconscious processes. The fluidity between these levels of awareness suggests that unconscious elements can be made conscious, and a comprehensive understanding of the self can be achieved through effective therapy and self-reflection.

Alfred Adler and Sigmund Freud were two of the most influential figures in the development of modern psychology, yet their theories differed significantly. While Freud focused on the unconscious mind and the role of instinctual drives, Adler saw the importance of needing to feel superior. While working with children with organic deficiency, Adler noticed that these children strived to put themselves in situations where they could feel superior and avoid problems that made them feel inferior [ 35 ]. His observations led Adler to believe that all people have feelings of inferiority that stem from childhood. Adler also emphasized the self more than Freud did. Adler believed that by combining the positive ideas of one’s self from the conscious mind and negative aspects from the unconscious mind, one could reach enlightenment and self-awareness.

Emphasizing stages: Erikson and Freud’s views on personality development

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a psychologist who built on Freud’s theories and developed his approach to psychosocial development. Erikson states that we all must overcome eight stages of development. These stages encompass a range of challenges, such as establishing trust with caregivers, overwhelming feelings of guilt, forming an identity, and accomplishing autonomy. The Eriksonian theory emphasizes achieving a healthy balance between societal demands and our own needs. Thus, he focuses on the societal and cultural factors that influence us at every point of our lives [ 38 ]. Each stage is characterized by a specific crisis that individuals must resolve to mature and become successful and content with life [ 39 , 40 ]. By addressing the psychosocial challenges of each stage, individuals have an opportunity to establish a fulfilling life. We will summarize Erikson’s theory, highlighting the similarities and differences between him and Freud [ 38 ].

Similarities Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like Freud, Erikson agreed that early childhood experiences have a lasting impact on personality development. Like Freud, he emphasized the importance of the first few years of life in shaping a person’s sense of self [ 38 - 40 ]. Classical psychoanalytic theory heavily emphasizes childhood experience, particularly the psychosexual stages [ 14 ]. Freud argued that the experiences of the first few years of life, especially interactions with parents or caregivers, ultimately shape an individual’s personality [ 14 ]. Erikson expanded on Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual development to encompass a lifelong journey with stages marked by developmental tasks. Erikson did agree with Freud in regards to childhood experiences being pivotal. However, he extended the focus to include the entire lifespan [ 38 ]. They both agreed and recognized that early childhood experiences impact an individual’s psychological development and personality. They believed unresolved conflicts or challenges during these formative years could lead to long-term consequences [ 38 , 39 ]. Freud focused on the sexual drives that occurred during infancy and early childhood, but Erikson believed every stage of life has its own drive, and these drives extend passed just early childhood [ 14 ].

The influence of the unconscious mind: While Erikson acknowledged the existence of the unconscious and believed it does play some role in processing information, he did not focus on it or speak about it much [ 40 ]. Unlike Freud, Jung, and Adler, Erikson was indifferent to the unconscious processes. He did not acknowledge them much in his developmental theory. For Erikson, the conscious mind plays a prominent role, and unconscious processes are irrelevant at best [ 40 ]. Erikson believed that individuals actively engage in self-discovery and identity formation, which involves conscious reflection [ 40 ]. While Erikson did not dismiss the existence of unconscious influence, he placed heavier emphasis on conscious awareness and how this conscious awareness allowed for integrating social and cultural factors [ 40 ].

Differences Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: According to Freud, humans are driven by sexual urges, particularly in childhood. Erikson disagreed. For Erikson, every part of life presents its own unique challenge that causes people to purpose [ 40 ]. Erikson’s theory focused more on social and emotional development than the sexual aspects emphasized by Freud [ 41 ]. However, a stage in Erikson’s view is often associated with Freud’s emphasis on sexuality, and that is Erikson’s “Identity vs. Role Confusion” stage, which occurs during adolescence (12 to 18 years old). During Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion stage, adolescents explore their identities, trying to establish a sense of self and figure out their place in society [ 42 ]. This stage is characterized by the search for a cohesive identity, including exploring one’s sexual and gender identity. Thus, while Erikson did not emphasize sexual development as Freud did, this stage does involve exploring sexual and romantic relationships, which, in a way, can be seen as parallel to Freud’s focus on sexual development [ 42 ].

The focus on social and cultural influences: Erikson emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in shaping personality development. Freud rarely acknowledged or spoke about the role of society or culture in his theoretical approach. Erikson believed that a person’s social context played a significant role in shaping identity [ 40 ]. The fourth stage, “Industry vs. Inferiority,” exemplifies the cultural focus in development. This stage occurs between the ages of six and 12 [ 42 ]. In the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, children develop a sense of competence in various social and academic settings. The child must strive to acquire new skills, accomplish tasks, and receive recognition and praise from others. A parallel between Adler’s Will to Power can be seen in this stage, as the child must strive to feel superior at this point in their life.

Interestingly, many of the children that Adler worked with were between the ages of six and 12 when he initially formulated his theory [ 35 ]. According to Erkison [ 42 ], this stage is crucial for developing self-esteem. Culture significantly influences the activities and expectations during this stage. Educational systems, societal norms, and cultural practices shape the tasks and activities children are encouraged to pursue. Cultural factors also influence the standards against which children measure their competence. Cultural values, beliefs, and social comparisons shape children’s perceptions of success or failure. By acknowledging the role of culture in the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, Erikson’s theory recognizes that cultural contexts influence children’s socialization and self-evaluation [ 42 ].

The emphasis on stages of development: Erikson’s theory proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved for them to progress to the next stage [ 42 ]. These stages are influenced by social factors such as family, peers, cultural norms, and the individual’s personality and temperament. For example, in the first stage of psychosocial development, trust vs. mistrust, infants must learn to trust their caregivers to develop a sense of security and basic trust in the world around them [ 42 ]. If caregivers are consistently responsive and meet the infant’s needs, the child will develop a sense of trust, influencing their future relationships and sense of self. However, if caregivers are unresponsive or inconsistent, the child may develop a sense of mistrust, which could lead to future difficulties in forming trusting relationships.

Similarly, in the fifth stage of psychosocial development, identity vs. role confusion, adolescents must navigate the challenges of identity formation and establish a sense of self-consistent with their cultural and social context [ 42 ]. If adolescents can successfully integrate their personal values and goals with the expectations of their social environment, they will develop a sense of identity and purpose. However, they may experience confusion and a lack of direction if they cannot do so. According to Erikson, each of the eight stages of development has its own unique set of challenges [ 42 ].

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposed eight stages of development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved to progress to the next stage. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continues throughout the lifespan and that successful resolution of these stages leads to a more integrated sense of self. Additionally, Erikson’s theory emphasized the potential for personal growth and change throughout the lifespan rather than the fixed nature of personality proposed by Freud. While Freud stresses the role of the unconscious mind and the importance of sexual and aggressive drives in shaping personality, Erikson believed that social and cultural factors played a more significant role.

Beyond the Oedipus complex: Horney’s feminist challenge to Freudian psychoanalysis

Karen Horney (1885-1952) was a psychoanalyst who developed her own theories about the unconscious influences and mechanisms that shape and ultimately determine behavior [ 43 ]. Horneyian psychology offers an alternative perspective from traditional psychoanalysis. Like Erikson and Jung, she emphasized the influence of cultural elements that lead to internal conflict [ 43 ]. Horney introduced the “interpersonal theory.” She highlights the importance of early relationships in shaping someone's personality [ 44 ]. In this regard, social and cultural context is crucial in understanding human behavior and the emergence of what she termed “neurotic patterns.” At the core of Horney’s theory is “basic anxiety.” Individuals develop a fundamental sense of insecurity and anxiety during their early years due to feelings of helplessness and vulnerability, similar to Adler’s inferiority complex [ 44 , 45 ]. According to Horney, we are all imprinted with certain gender roles, which leads to feelings of internal strife. This anxiety influences the individual’s subsequent psychological development and contributes to the formation of neurotic behaviors to cope with the stressors of day-to-day living.

Similarities Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like all the other psychoanalysts we discussed, Horney agreed that early childhood experiences play a significant role in shaping a person [ 43 ]. Unlike Freud, who emphasized the influence of unconscious drives, conflicts, and sexual development [ 1 - 3 ], Horney focused on the impact of gender roles and sexuality in forming an individual’s sense of self and their relationship to society [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud share similarities in their views on the unconscious [ 1 - 3 , 43 , 44 ]. Both psychologists acknowledged the existence of the unconscious mind, recognizing that individuals are not always aware of the motivations, desires, and conflicts that drive their thoughts and behaviors. They agreed that the unconscious significantly influences human behavior, shaping aspects of personality, emotional experiences, and the formation of psychological symptoms [ 43 , 44 ]. While their theories diverged in specific mechanisms and influences on the unconscious, such as cultural and social factors in Horney’s approach versus innate drives in Freud’s theory, they recognized the importance of exploring and understanding the unconscious to gain insight into human psychology [ 43 , 44 ].

Differences Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The role of culture and society: Horney believed that cultural and societal factors played a significant role in shaping personality, whereas Freud’s psychoanalytic theory focused primarily on the individual psyche. She emphasized the importance of social influences such as gender roles, cultural norms, and societal expectations in shaping a person's sense of self [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney believed that women, in particular, are socialized to adopt submissive and nurturing roles, which can lead to feelings of inferiority and helplessness down the line [ 43 ]. Women are often taught to prioritize the needs of others over their own, which can lead to a lack of self-esteem and a sense of being powerless or dependent on others. Horney believed that this cultural conditioning could lead to the development of what she called “feminine psychology,” which is characterized by a preoccupation with love, relationships, and the desire for approval from others [ 44 ]. Women who internalize these cultural messages may struggle with insecurity and self-doubt, affecting their sense of self and ability to achieve their goals [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney also believed that men are subject to cultural expectations and that traditional male gender roles can lead to emotional detachment and a need to prove oneself through competition and achievement. Men may struggle with feelings of isolation and a sense of disconnection from their emotions, which can affect their ability to form intimate relationships and achieve a sense of fulfillment in their lives [ 43 , 44 ]. Karen Horney and Alfred Adler had contrasting views on the concept of inferiority while sharing some similarities. Horney believed that feelings of inferiority stem from societal pressures and parental attitudes, leading to inadequacy and insecurity [ 44 , 45 ]. She emphasized the role of external validation and success as compensatory strategies to overcome these feelings.

In contrast, Adler viewed inferiority as an inherent part of the human condition, driving individuals to strive for superiority and personal growth. He emphasized the importance of overcoming inferiority through developing a sense of community and contributing to society [ 35 , 36 ]. Both theorists recognized the impact of childhood experiences on the development of inferiority. Still, Horney focused more on cultural and social influences, while Adler emphasized individual psychology and the pursuit of social interest.

The role of anxiety: Horney placed a greater emphasis on the role of anxiety in shaping behavior and personality than Freud did. She believed anxiety was a normal and necessary part of life and could be harnessed to promote growth and change [ 45 ]. Horney developed the concept of “basic anxiety,” which refers to a deep-seated feeling of insecurity and helplessness that arises from early childhood experiences. Basic anxiety can lead to neurosis and other psychological problems if not addressed. Horney believed that basic anxiety was a pervasive sense of vulnerability and insecurity from early childhood experiences, such as neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers [ 45 ]. This basic anxiety can become a central aspect of an individual’s personality and affect their relationships, sense of self, and ability to cope with stress. According to Horney, there are several ways in which individuals may respond to basic anxiety. One response is to seek security and protection from others, which can lead to a preoccupation with relationships and a fear of rejection or abandonment. Another response is to develop a strong sense of independence and self-sufficiency, which can lead to a fear of being controlled or dominated by others. A third response is to become aggressive or domineering, which can be a defense against feelings of helplessness and vulnerability [ 45 ].

The concept of neurotic needs: Horney identified the “neurotic needs” common to everyone and could lead to neurosis if not addressed. These included the need for affection and approval, the need for power and control, and the need for perfection as well as others [ 45 ]. According to Horney, neurotic needs are compulsive desires or behaviors that individuals adopt to feel more secure and alleviate anxiety. These needs are not based on genuine personal interests or values but rather on a perceived need to conform to the expectations of others or to achieve a sense of control over their environment [ 45 ]. These needs can become so ingrained in an individual’s personality that they interfere with their ability to form healthy relationships, pursue personal interests, and achieve a sense of fulfillment in life. Horney believed that the development of neurotic needs was influenced by early childhood experiences, particularly those that involved feelings of neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers. These experiences can make individuals feel insecure and vulnerable and adopt behaviors or attitudes that they believe will protect them from further harm [ 45 ].

The role of psychotherapy: Horney’s approach to psychotherapy differed significantly from traditional psychoanalysis. She believed the therapist’s role was to create a supportive and empathic environment where the client could explore and understand their emotions and experiences rather than interpret and analyze the client’s unconscious motivations and conflicts [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud had significant differences in their personality and psychological development theories. Freud emphasized the importance of innate drives and instincts in shaping an individual’s psychological development. At the same time, Horney believed that an individual’s personality was largely shaped by their social and cultural experiences, particularly their early relationships with caregivers. Horney also differed from Freud’s views on gender and sexuality, emphasizing that gender roles were socially constructed and influenced by cultural norms and expectations. Overall, while Freud’s theories continue to be influential in modern psychology, Horney’s emphasis on the role of social and cultural experiences in shaping an individual’s personality has had a lasting impact on psychology.

Strengths, limitations, and contributions of this study

One of the major strengths of this review paper is the comprehensive coverage of the major contributors to the field of psychoanalysis and how their views contrast with the founder, Sigmund Freud. By exploring the findings of these contributors, the reader is offered many unique perspectives and, thus, a broader understanding of the field. However, a limitation of this review is its lack of detailed exploration of the theories and concepts put forth by these major contributors. Due to the nature of the paper, which aims to provide an overview of the history of psychoanalysis, it does not have the space to delve deeply into each theorist’s work. Consequently, readers seeking an in-depth analysis of specific theories may use this review as a starting place for their research and learning. We hope that this paper could put forth a framework for what psychoanalysis is and where it came from. In addition, we hope to have sparked the reader’s interest to further read and learn more about this fascinating psychology paradigm.

Conclusions

The theories of Sigmund Freud have laid a foundation for psychoanalytical psychology. Although the thoughts and attitudes of his students differed from him, they remained grounded in psychoanalysis. All four psychoanalysts we have discussed agree that childhood plays a significant role in development. Freud, as we discussed earlier, emphasized the sexual nature of people and believed this was the most significant factor in determining a person’s behavior and personality. Jung spoke about the collective unconscious and the need for self-realization, a drive he termed “individuation.” In his theory, we all share a collective unconscious and must use the archetypes of this collective unconscious with our consciousness to attain self-realization. Adler had his version of self-realization, called “Will to Power.” Adler saw all people needing to overcome feelings of inferiority from childhood to attain feelings of superiority in adulthood. Erikson believed every life stage has unique challenges and drives to overcome negative feelings. Horney emphasized the feelings of anxiety influencing our behavior and drives.

While Freud spoke of the id, ego, and superego in his theory of the unconscious, this was not a central theme for his students. Jung highlighted the collective unconscious, a universal shared architecture of understanding the world around us. Adler saw the unconscious and consciousness as more fluid than Freud did. He believed people could more easily access the unconscious than Freud had originally postulated. Erikson acknowledged the unconscious but was indifferent about it in his theoretical framework. Horney’s view of the unconscious was very similar to Freud’s; however, she heavily emphasized how gender roles influence our unconsciousness. In conclusion, the diverse perspectives of Freud and his students, such as Jung, Adler, Erikson, and Horney, have contributed to the rich tapestry of psychoanalytical psychology, each offering unique insights into the role of childhood, the unconscious mind, and the factors shaping human behavior and personality.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

• Psychology General
• Social Psychology

Theories in Social Psychology, 2nd Edition

ISBN: 978-1-119-62788-3

Wiley-Blackwell

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Derek Chadee

THEORIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Theories in Social Psychology develops a deeper, more robust understanding of the theoretical framework underlying the field. Providing rich insights into the central theories and perspectives that continue to shape the discipline, this edited volume brings together a panel of distinguished scholars to address thirteen social psychological theories relating to social cognition, social comparison, social reinforcement, and self. In-depth critical discussions examine topics including cognitive dissonance, reactance, attribution, social comparison, relative deprivation, equity, interdependency, social identity, and more.

The expanded second edition fills a substantial gap in current literature by articulating the important psychological theories rather than placing emphasis on applied research. New and revised content helps students understand the construction and complexity of key theories while inspiring researchers of social behavior to reflect on their current work and consider future areas of investigation. This comprehensive resource:

• Identifies and discusses the theoretical perspectives and specific theories that form the foundation of the study of social psychology
• Features work from leading scholars including Bertram F. Malle, Paul R. Nail, Richard E. Petty, Thomas Mussweiler, Faye J. Crosby, and Miles Hewstone
• Helps students move from introductory concepts to multifaceted theoretical frameworks

Theories in Social Psychology, Second Edition, remains the perfect textbook for academics and students wanting to study and discuss important social psychological perspectives and theories and attain a deeper understanding of the theoretical framework.

"This book will be a very valuable tool for students and professionals alike who wish to learn theories in social psychology and the role they have played in the development of the discipline. It is comprehensive in its coverage and covers the theories in an objective and engaging way." — Robert J. Sternberg, Professor, Department of Psychology, College of Human Ecology, Cornell University, Honorary Professor of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, Germany

"In this wonderful new edition of compilation of theories, at the core of modern social psychology, presented to us by Derek Chadee, we are given a special gift that enriches scholars, teachers and students of psychology in social and general psychology. We are treated to a clear exposition of these theories some of the research and controversy that each has generated, and are given some guidelines to new paths for future exploration of their implications. My research career has benefitted from working in the domains of dissonance, attribution, and social comparison theories, but my teaching and textbook writing has relied on all of the theories and their concepts so elegantly orchestrated here." — Phillip G. Zimbardo, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, Stanford University

Derek Chadee is Professor of Social Psychology and directs the ANSA McAL Psychological Research Centre at the University of the West Indies. He is a Fullbright Research Scholar and has published several books in the area of social psychology. He has a robust research agenda with a focus on the psychology of fear of crime and has published in several international journals including Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, British Journal of Criminology, International Victimology, Crime Media and Culture and Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. He has a strong interest in social psychological theories.

CORRECTION article

Corrigendum: leadership as a determinant of need fulfillment: implications for meta-theory, methods, and practice.

This article is a correction to:

Leadership as a determinant of need fulfillment: implications for meta-theory, methods, and practice

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A corrigendum on Leadership as a determinant of need fulfillment: implications for meta-theory, methods, and practice

by Pincus, J. D. (2024). Front. Psychol . 15:1427072. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427072

In the published article, there was an error in the affiliation. Instead of “Employee Benefit Research Institute, Washington, DC, United States”, it should be “Leading Indicator Systems, Boston, MA, United States.”

In the published article, there was an error. Due to the change of affiliation, the Conflict of Interest statement is incorrect.

A correction has been made to Conflict of Interest , this sentence previously stated:

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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JP was employed by Leading Indicator Systems, Boston.

The author apologizes for these errors and states that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.

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Keywords: leadership, transformational leadership, servant leadership, sustainable leadership, toxic leadership, organizational culture, employee engagement, employee well-being

Citation: Pincus JD (2024) Corrigendum: Leadership as a determinant of need fulfillment: implications for meta-theory, methods, and practice. Front. Psychol. 15:1462854. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1462854

Received: 10 July 2024; Accepted: 22 July 2024; Published: 07 August 2024.

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Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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