how to start a research interview

How to conduct qualitative interviews (tips and best practices)

Last updated

18 May 2023

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

However, conducting qualitative interviews can be challenging, even for seasoned researchers. Poorly conducted interviews can lead to inaccurate or incomplete data, significantly compromising the validity and reliability of your research findings.

When planning to conduct qualitative interviews, you must adequately prepare yourself to get the most out of your data. Fortunately, there are specific tips and best practices that can help you conduct qualitative interviews effectively.

• What is a qualitative interview?

A qualitative interview is a research technique used to gather in-depth information about people's experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions. Unlike a structured questionnaire or survey, a qualitative interview is a flexible, conversational approach that allows the interviewer to delve into the interviewee's responses and explore their insights and experiences.

In a qualitative interview, the researcher typically develops a set of open-ended questions that provide a framework for the conversation. However, the interviewer can also adapt to the interviewee's responses and ask follow-up questions to understand their experiences and views better.

• How to conduct interviews in qualitative research

Conducting interviews involves a well-planned and deliberate process to collect accurate and valid data. 

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to conduct interviews in qualitative research, broken down into three stages:

1. Before the interview

The first step in conducting a qualitative interview is determining your research question . This will help you identify the type of participants you need to recruit . Once you have your research question, you can start recruiting participants by identifying potential candidates and contacting them to gauge their interest in participating in the study. 

After that, it's time to develop your interview questions. These should be open-ended questions that will elicit detailed responses from participants. You'll also need to get consent from the participants, ideally in writing, to ensure that they understand the purpose of the study and their rights as participants. Finally, choose a comfortable and private location to conduct the interview and prepare the interview guide.

2. During the interview

Start by introducing yourself and explaining the purpose of the study. Establish a rapport by putting the participants at ease and making them feel comfortable. Use the interview guide to ask the questions, but be flexible and ask follow-up questions to gain more insight into the participants' responses. 

Take notes during the interview, and ask permission to record the interview for transcription purposes. Be mindful of the time, and cover all the questions in the interview guide.

3. After the interview

Once the interview is over, transcribe the interview if you recorded it. If you took notes, review and organize them to make sure you capture all the important information. Then, analyze the data you collected by identifying common themes and patterns. Use the findings to answer your research question. 

Finally, debrief with the participants to thank them for their time, provide feedback on the study, and answer any questions they may have.

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• What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?

Qualitative interviews involve asking questions that encourage participants to share their experiences, opinions, and perspectives on a particular topic. These questions are designed to elicit detailed and nuanced responses rather than simple yes or no answers.

Effective questions in a qualitative interview are generally open-ended and non-leading. They avoid presuppositions or assumptions about the participant's experience and allow them to share their views in their own words. 

In customer research , you might ask questions such as:

What motivated you to choose our product/service over our competitors?

How did you first learn about our product/service?

Can you walk me through your experience with our product/service?

What improvements or changes would you suggest for our product/service?

Have you recommended our product/service to others, and if so, why?

The key is to ask questions relevant to the research topic and allow participants to share their experiences meaningfully and informally. 

• How to determine the right qualitative interview participants

Choosing the right participants for a qualitative interview is a crucial step in ensuring the success and validity of the research . You need to consider several factors to determine the right participants for a qualitative interview. These may include:

Relevant experiences : Participants should have experiences related to the research topic that can provide valuable insights.

Diversity : Aim to include diverse participants to ensure the study's findings are representative and inclusive.

Access : Identify participants who are accessible and willing to participate in the study.

Informed consent : Participants should be fully informed about the study's purpose, methods, and potential risks and benefits and be allowed to provide informed consent.

You can use various recruitment methods, such as posting ads in relevant forums, contacting community organizations or social media groups, or using purposive sampling to identify participants who meet specific criteria.

• How to make qualitative interview subjects comfortable

Making participants comfortable during a qualitative interview is essential to obtain rich, detailed data. Participants are more likely to share their experiences openly when they feel at ease and not judged. 

Here are some ways to make interview subjects comfortable:

Explain the purpose of the study

Start the interview by explaining the research topic and its importance. The goal is to give participants a sense of what to expect.

Create a comfortable environment

Conduct the interview in a quiet, private space where the participant feels comfortable. Turn off any unnecessary electronics that can create distractions. Ensure your equipment works well ahead of time. Arrive at the interview on time. If you conduct a remote interview, turn on your camera and mute all notetakers and observers.

Build rapport

Greet the participant warmly and introduce yourself. Show interest in their responses and thank them for their time.

Use open-ended questions

Ask questions that encourage participants to elaborate on their thoughts and experiences.

Listen attentively

Resist the urge to multitask . Pay attention to the participant's responses, nod your head, or make supportive comments to show you’re interested in their answers. Avoid interrupting them.

Avoid judgment

Show respect and don't judge the participant's views or experiences. Allow the participant to speak freely without feeling judged or ridiculed.

Offer breaks

If needed, offer breaks during the interview, especially if the topic is sensitive or emotional.

Creating a comfortable environment and establishing rapport with the participant fosters an atmosphere of trust and encourages open communication. This helps participants feel at ease and willing to share their experiences.

• How to analyze a qualitative interview

Analyzing a qualitative interview involves a systematic process of examining the data collected to identify patterns, themes, and meanings that emerge from the responses. 

Here are some steps on how to analyze a qualitative interview:

1. Transcription

The first step is transcribing the interview into text format to have a written record of the conversation. This step is essential to ensure that you can refer back to the interview data and identify the important aspects of the interview.

2. Data reduction

Once you’ve transcribed the interview, read through it to identify key themes, patterns, and phrases emerging from the data. This process involves reducing the data into more manageable pieces you can easily analyze.

The next step is to code the data by labeling sections of the text with descriptive words or phrases that reflect the data's content. Coding helps identify key themes and patterns from the interview data.

4. Categorization

After coding, you should group the codes into categories based on their similarities. This process helps to identify overarching themes or sub-themes that emerge from the data.

5. Interpretation

You should then interpret the themes and sub-themes by identifying relationships, contradictions, and meanings that emerge from the data. Interpretation involves analyzing the themes in the context of the research question .

6. Comparison

The next step is comparing the data across participants or groups to identify similarities and differences. This step helps to ensure that the findings aren’t just specific to one participant but can be generalized to the wider population.

7. Triangulation

To ensure the findings are valid and reliable, you should use triangulation by comparing the findings with other sources, such as observations or interview data.

8. Synthesis

The final step is synthesizing the findings by summarizing the key themes and presenting them clearly and concisely. This step involves writing a report that presents the findings in a way that is easy to understand, using quotes and examples from the interview data to illustrate the themes.

• Tips for transcribing a qualitative interview

Transcribing a qualitative interview is a crucial step in the research process. It involves converting the audio or video recording of the interview into written text. 

Here are some tips for transcribing a qualitative interview:

Use transcription software

Transcription software can save time and increase accuracy by automatically transcribing audio or video recordings.

Listen carefully

When manually transcribing, listen carefully to the recording to ensure clarity. Pause and rewind the recording as necessary.

Use appropriate formatting

Use a consistent format for transcribing, such as marking pauses, overlaps, and interruptions. Indicate non-verbal cues such as laughter, sighs, or changes in tone.

Edit for clarity

Edit the transcription to ensure clarity and readability. Use standard grammar and punctuation, correct misspellings, and remove filler words like "um" and "ah."

Proofread and edit

Verify the accuracy of the transcription by listening to the recording again and reviewing the notes taken during the interview.

Use timestamps

Add timestamps to the transcription to reference specific interview sections.

Transcribing a qualitative interview can be time-consuming, but it’s essential to ensure the accuracy of the data collected. Following these tips can produce high-quality transcriptions useful for analysis and reporting.

• Why are interview techniques in qualitative research effective?

Unlike quantitative research methods, which rely on numerical data, qualitative research seeks to understand the richness and complexity of human experiences and perspectives. 

Interview techniques involve asking open-ended questions that allow participants to express their views and share their stories in their own words. This approach can help researchers to uncover unexpected or surprising insights that may not have been discovered through other research methods.

Interview techniques also allow researchers to establish rapport with participants, creating a comfortable and safe space for them to share their experiences. This can lead to a deeper level of trust and candor, leading to more honest and authentic responses.

• What are the weaknesses of qualitative interviews?

Qualitative interviews are an excellent research approach when used properly, but they have their drawbacks. 

The weaknesses of qualitative interviews include the following:

Subjectivity and personal biases

Qualitative interviews rely on the researcher's interpretation of the interviewee's responses. The researcher's biases or preconceptions can affect how the questions are framed and how the responses are interpreted, which can influence results.

Small sample size

The sample size in qualitative interviews is often small, which can limit the generalizability of the results to the larger population.

Data quality

The quality of data collected during interviews can be affected by various factors, such as the interviewee's mood, the setting of the interview, and the interviewer's skills and experience.

Socially desirable responses

Interviewees may provide responses that they believe are socially acceptable rather than truthful or genuine.

Conducting qualitative interviews can be expensive, especially if the researcher must travel to different locations to conduct the interviews.

Time-consuming

The data analysis process can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, as researchers need to transcribe and analyze the data manually.

Despite these weaknesses, qualitative interviews remain a valuable research tool . You can take steps to mitigate the impact of these weaknesses by incorporating the perspectives of other researchers or participants in the analysis process, using multiple data sources , and critically analyzing your biases and assumptions.

Mastering the art of qualitative interviews is an essential skill for businesses looking to gain deep insights into their customers' needs , preferences, and behaviors. By following the tips and best practices outlined in this article, you can conduct interviews that provide you with rich data that you can use to make informed decisions about your products, services, and marketing strategies. 

Remember that effective communication, active listening, and proper analysis are critical components of successful qualitative interviews. By incorporating these practices into your customer research, you can gain a competitive edge and build stronger customer relationships.

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Qualitative Research 101: Interviewing

5 Common Mistakes To Avoid When Undertaking Interviews

By: David Phair (PhD) and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | March 2022

Undertaking interviews is potentially the most important step in the qualitative research process. If you don’t collect useful, useable data in your interviews, you’ll struggle through the rest of your dissertation or thesis.  Having helped numerous students with their research over the years, we’ve noticed some common interviewing mistakes that first-time researchers make. In this post, we’ll discuss five costly interview-related mistakes and outline useful strategies to avoid making these.

Overview: 5 Interviewing Mistakes

• Not having a clear interview strategy /plan
• Not having good interview techniques /skills
• Not securing a suitable location and equipment
• Not having a basic risk management plan
• Not keeping your “ golden thread ” front of mind

1. Not having a clear interview strategy

The first common mistake that we’ll look at is that of starting the interviewing process without having first come up with a clear interview strategy or plan of action. While it’s natural to be keen to get started engaging with your interviewees, a lack of planning can result in a mess of data and inconsistency between interviews.

There are several design choices to decide on and plan for before you start interviewing anyone. Some of the most important questions you need to ask yourself before conducting interviews include:

• What are the guiding research aims and research questions of my study?
• Will I use a structured, semi-structured or unstructured interview approach?
• How will I record the interviews (audio or video)?
• Who will be interviewed and by whom ?
• What ethics and data law considerations do I need to adhere to?
• How will I analyze my data? 

Let’s take a quick look at some of these.

The core objective of the interviewing process is to generate useful data that will help you address your overall research aims. Therefore, your interviews need to be conducted in a way that directly links to your research aims, objectives and research questions (i.e. your “golden thread”). This means that you need to carefully consider the questions you’ll ask to ensure that they align with and feed into your golden thread. If any question doesn’t align with this, you may want to consider scrapping it.

Another important design choice is whether you’ll use an unstructured, semi-structured or structured interview approach . For semi-structured interviews, you will have a list of questions that you plan to ask and these questions will be open-ended in nature. You’ll also allow the discussion to digress from the core question set if something interesting comes up. This means that the type of information generated might differ a fair amount between interviews.

Contrasted to this, a structured approach to interviews is more rigid, where a specific set of closed questions is developed and asked for each interviewee in exactly the same order. Closed questions have a limited set of answers, that are often single-word answers. Therefore, you need to think about what you’re trying to achieve with your research project (i.e. your research aims) and decided on which approach would be best suited in your case.

It is also important to plan ahead with regards to who will be interviewed and how. You need to think about how you will approach the possible interviewees to get their cooperation, who will conduct the interviews, when to conduct the interviews and how to record the interviews. For each of these decisions, it’s also essential to make sure that all ethical considerations and data protection laws are taken into account.

Finally, you should think through how you plan to analyze the data (i.e., your qualitative analysis method) generated by the interviews. Different types of analysis rely on different types of data, so you need to ensure you’re asking the right types of questions and correctly guiding your respondents.

Simply put, you need to have a plan of action regarding the specifics of your interview approach before you start collecting data. If not, you’ll end up drifting in your approach from interview to interview, which will result in inconsistent, unusable data.

2. Not having good interview technique

While you’re generally not expected to become you to be an expert interviewer for a dissertation or thesis, it is important to practice good interview technique and develop basic interviewing skills .

Let’s go through some basics that will help the process along.

Firstly, before the interview , make sure you know your interview questions well and have a clear idea of what you want from the interview. Naturally, the specificity of your questions will depend on whether you’re taking a structured, semi-structured or unstructured approach, but you still need a consistent starting point . Ideally, you should develop an interview guide beforehand (more on this later) that details your core question and links these to the research aims, objectives and research questions.

Before you undertake any interviews, it’s a good idea to do a few mock interviews with friends or family members. This will help you get comfortable with the interviewer role, prepare for potentially unexpected answers and give you a good idea of how long the interview will take to conduct. In the interviewing process, you’re likely to encounter two kinds of challenging interviewees ; the two-word respondent and the respondent who meanders and babbles. Therefore, you should prepare yourself for both and come up with a plan to respond to each in a way that will allow the interview to continue productively.

To begin the formal interview , provide the person you are interviewing with an overview of your research. This will help to calm their nerves (and yours) and contextualize the interaction. Ultimately, you want the interviewee to feel comfortable and be willing to be open and honest with you, so it’s useful to start in a more casual, relaxed fashion and allow them to ask any questions they may have. From there, you can ease them into the rest of the questions.

As the interview progresses , avoid asking leading questions (i.e., questions that assume something about the interviewee or their response). Make sure that you speak clearly and slowly , using plain language and being ready to paraphrase questions if the person you are interviewing misunderstands. Be particularly careful with interviewing English second language speakers to ensure that you’re both on the same page.

Engage with the interviewee by listening to them carefully and acknowledging that you are listening to them by smiling or nodding. Show them that you’re interested in what they’re saying and thank them for their openness as appropriate. This will also encourage your interviewee to respond openly.

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3. Not securing a suitable location and quality equipment

Where you conduct your interviews and the equipment you use to record them both play an important role in how the process unfolds. Therefore, you need to think carefully about each of these variables before you start interviewing.

Poor location: A bad location can result in the quality of your interviews being compromised, interrupted, or cancelled. If you are conducting physical interviews, you’ll need a location that is quiet, safe, and welcoming . It’s very important that your location of choice is not prone to interruptions (the workplace office is generally problematic, for example) and has suitable facilities (such as water, a bathroom, and snacks).

If you are conducting online interviews , you need to consider a few other factors. Importantly, you need to make sure that both you and your respondent have access to a good, stable internet connection and electricity. Always check before the time that both of you know how to use the relevant software and it’s accessible (sometimes meeting platforms are blocked by workplace policies or firewalls). It’s also good to have alternatives in place (such as WhatsApp, Zoom, or Teams) to cater for these types of issues.

Poor equipment: Using poor-quality recording equipment or using equipment incorrectly means that you will have trouble transcribing, coding, and analyzing your interviews. This can be a major issue , as some of your interview data may go completely to waste if not recorded well. So, make sure that you use good-quality recording equipment and that you know how to use it correctly.

To avoid issues, you should always conduct test recordings before every interview to ensure that you can use the relevant equipment properly. It’s also a good idea to spot check each recording afterwards, just to make sure it was recorded as planned. If your equipment uses batteries, be sure to always carry a spare set.

4. Not having a basic risk management plan

Many possible issues can arise during the interview process. Not planning for these issues can mean that you are left with compromised data that might not be useful to you. Therefore, it’s important to map out some sort of risk management plan ahead of time, considering the potential risks, how you’ll minimize their probability and how you’ll manage them if they materialize.

Common potential issues related to the actual interview include cancellations (people pulling out), delays (such as getting stuck in traffic), language and accent differences (especially in the case of poor internet connections), issues with internet connections and power supply. Other issues can also occur in the interview itself. For example, the interviewee could drift off-topic, or you might encounter an interviewee who does not say much at all.

You can prepare for these potential issues by considering possible worst-case scenarios and preparing a response for each scenario. For instance, it is important to plan a backup date just in case your interviewee cannot make it to the first meeting you scheduled with them. It’s also a good idea to factor in a 30-minute gap between your interviews for the instances where someone might be late, or an interview runs overtime for other reasons. Make sure that you also plan backup questions that could be used to bring a respondent back on topic if they start rambling, or questions to encourage those who are saying too little.

In general, it’s best practice to plan to conduct more interviews than you think you need (this is called oversampling ). Doing so will allow you some room for error if there are interviews that don’t go as planned, or if some interviewees withdraw. If you need 10 interviews, it is a good idea to plan for 15. Likely, a few will cancel , delay, or not produce useful data.

5. Not keeping your golden thread front of mind

We touched on this a little earlier, but it is a key point that should be central to your entire research process. You don’t want to end up with pages and pages of data after conducting your interviews and realize that it is not useful to your research aims . Your research aims, objectives and research questions – i.e., your golden thread – should influence every design decision and should guide the interview process at all times. 

A useful way to avoid this mistake is by developing an interview guide before you begin interviewing your respondents. An interview guide is a document that contains all of your questions with notes on how each of the interview questions is linked to the research question(s) of your study. You can also include your research aims and objectives here for a more comprehensive linkage. 

You can easily create an interview guide by drawing up a table with one column containing your core interview questions . Then add another column with your research questions , another with expectations that you may have in light of the relevant literature and another with backup or follow-up questions . As mentioned, you can also bring in your research aims and objectives to help you connect them all together. If you’d like, you can download a copy of our free interview guide here .

Recap: Qualitative Interview Mistakes

In this post, we’ve discussed 5 common costly mistakes that are easy to make in the process of planning and conducting qualitative interviews.

To recap, these include:

If you have any questions about these interviewing mistakes, drop a comment below. Alternatively, if you’re interested in getting 1-on-1 help with your thesis or dissertation , check out our dissertation coaching service or book a free initial consultation with one of our friendly Grad Coaches.

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Using an interview in a research paper

Consultant contributor: Viviane Ugalde

Using an interview can be an effective primary source for some papers and research projects. Finding an expert in the field or some other person who has knowledge of your topic can allow for you to gather unique information not available elsewhere.

There are four steps to using an interview as a source for your research.

• Know where and how to start.
• Know how to write a good question.
• Know how to conduct an interview.
• Know how to incorporate the interview into your document or project.

Step one: Where to start

First, you should determine your goals and ask yourself these questions:

• Who are the local experts on topic?
• How can I contact these people?
• Does anyone know them to help me setup the interviews?
• Are their phone numbers in the phone book or can I find them on the Internet?

Once you answer these questions and pick your interviewee, get their basic information such as their name, title, and other general details. If you reach out and your interview does not participate, don’t be discouraged. Keep looking for other interview contacts.

Step two: How to write a good question

When you have confirmed an interview, it is not time to come up with questions.

• Learning as much as you can about the person before the interview can help you create questions specific to your interview subject.
• Doing research about your interviewee’s past experience in your topic, or any texts that they have written would be great background research.

When you start to think of questions, write down more questions than you think you’ll need, and prioritize them as you go. Any good questions will answer the 5W and H questions. Asking Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How questions that you need answered for your paper, will help you form a question to ask your interviewee.

When writing a good question, try thinking of something that will help your argument.

• Is your interviewee an advocate for you position?
• Are they in any programs that are related to your research?
• How much experience do they have?

From broad questions like these, you can begin to narrow down to more specific and open-ended questions.

Step three: The interview

If at all possible, arrange to conduct the interview at the subject’s workplace. It will make them more comfortable, and you can write about their surroundings.

• Begin the interview with some small talk in order to give both of you the chance to get comfortable with one another
• Develop rapport that will make the interview easier for both of you.
• Ask open-ended questions
• Keep the conversation moving
• Stay on topic
• The more silence in the room, the more honest the answer.
• If an interesting subject comes up that is related to your research, ask a follow-up or an additional question about it.
• Ask if you can stay in contact with your interview subject in case there are any additional questions you have.

Step four: Incorporating the interview

When picking the material out of your interview, remember that people rarely speak perfectly. There will be many slang words and pauses that you can take out, as long as it does not change the meaning of the material you are using.

As you introduce your interview in the paper, start with a transition such as “according to” or other attributions. You should also be specific to the type of interview you are working with. This way, you will build a stronger ethos in your paper .

The body of your essay should clearly set up the quote or paraphrase you use from the interview responses,. Be careful not to stick a quote from the interview into the body of your essay because it sounds good. When deciding what to quote in your paper, think about what dialogue from the interview would add the most color to your interview. Quotes that illustrate what your interviewer sounded like, or what their personality is are always the best quotes to choose from.

Once you have done that, proofread your essay. Make sure the quotes you used don’t make up the majority of your paper. The interview quotes are supposed to support your argument; you are not supposed to support the interview.

For example, let’s say that you are arguing that free education is better than not. For your argument, you interview a local politician who is on your side of the argument. Rather than using a large quote that explains the stance of both sides, and why the politician chose this side, your quote is there to support the information you’ve already given. Whatever the politician says should prove what you argue, and not give new information.

Step five: Examples of citing your interviews 

Smith, Jane. Personal interview. 19 May 2018.

(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2018).

Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2018).

Reference list

Daly, C. & Leighton W. (2017). Interviewing a Source: Tips. Journalists Resource.

Driscoll, D. (2018 ). Interviewing. Purdue University

Hayden, K. (2012). How to Conduct an Interview to Write a Paper . Bright Hub Education, Bright Hub Inc.

Hose, C. (2017). How to Incorporate Interviews into Essays. Leaf Group Education.

Magnesi, J. (2017). How to Interview Someone for an Article or Research Paper. Career Trend, Leaf group Media.

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Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples

Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples

Published on March 10, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on June 22, 2023.

An interview is a qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to collect data . Interviews involve two or more people, one of whom is the interviewer asking the questions.

There are several types of interviews, often differentiated by their level of structure.

• Structured interviews have predetermined questions asked in a predetermined order.
• Unstructured interviews are more free-flowing.
• Semi-structured interviews fall in between.

Interviews are commonly used in market research, social science, and ethnographic research .

Table of contents

What is a structured interview, what is a semi-structured interview, what is an unstructured interview, what is a focus group, examples of interview questions, advantages and disadvantages of interviews, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of interviews.

Structured interviews have predetermined questions in a set order. They are often closed-ended, featuring dichotomous (yes/no) or multiple-choice questions. While open-ended structured interviews exist, they are much less common. The types of questions asked make structured interviews a predominantly quantitative tool.

Asking set questions in a set order can help you see patterns among responses, and it allows you to easily compare responses between participants while keeping other factors constant. This can mitigate   research biases and lead to higher reliability and validity. However, structured interviews can be overly formal, as well as limited in scope and flexibility.

• You feel very comfortable with your topic. This will help you formulate your questions most effectively.
• You have limited time or resources. Structured interviews are a bit more straightforward to analyze because of their closed-ended nature, and can be a doable undertaking for an individual.
• Your research question depends on holding environmental conditions between participants constant.

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Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured interviews. While the interviewer has a general plan for what they want to ask, the questions do not have to follow a particular phrasing or order.

Semi-structured interviews are often open-ended, allowing for flexibility, but follow a predetermined thematic framework, giving a sense of order. For this reason, they are often considered “the best of both worlds.”

However, if the questions differ substantially between participants, it can be challenging to look for patterns, lessening the generalizability and validity of your results.

• You have prior interview experience. It’s easier than you think to accidentally ask a leading question when coming up with questions on the fly. Overall, spontaneous questions are much more difficult than they may seem.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature. The answers you receive can help guide your future research.

An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview. The questions and the order in which they are asked are not set. Instead, the interview can proceed more spontaneously, based on the participant’s previous answers.

Unstructured interviews are by definition open-ended. This flexibility can help you gather detailed information on your topic, while still allowing you to observe patterns between participants.

However, so much flexibility means that they can be very challenging to conduct properly. You must be very careful not to ask leading questions, as biased responses can lead to lower reliability or even invalidate your research.

• You have a solid background in your research topic and have conducted interviews before.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature, and you are seeking descriptive data that will deepen and contextualize your initial hypotheses.
• Your research necessitates forming a deeper connection with your participants, encouraging them to feel comfortable revealing their true opinions and emotions.

A focus group brings together a group of participants to answer questions on a topic of interest in a moderated setting. Focus groups are qualitative in nature and often study the group’s dynamic and body language in addition to their answers. Responses can guide future research on consumer products and services, human behavior, or controversial topics.

Focus groups can provide more nuanced and unfiltered feedback than individual interviews and are easier to organize than experiments or large surveys . However, their small size leads to low external validity and the temptation as a researcher to “cherry-pick” responses that fit your hypotheses.

• Your research focuses on the dynamics of group discussion or real-time responses to your topic.
• Your questions are complex and rooted in feelings, opinions, and perceptions that cannot be answered with a “yes” or “no.”
• Your topic is exploratory in nature, and you are seeking information that will help you uncover new questions or future research ideas.

Depending on the type of interview you are conducting, your questions will differ in style, phrasing, and intention. Structured interview questions are set and precise, while the other types of interviews allow for more open-endedness and flexibility.

Here are some examples.

• Semi-structured
• Unstructured
• Focus group
• Do you like dogs? Yes/No
• Do you associate dogs with feeling: happy; somewhat happy; neutral; somewhat unhappy; unhappy
• If yes, name one attribute of dogs that you like.
• If no, name one attribute of dogs that you don’t like.
• What feelings do dogs bring out in you?
• When you think more deeply about this, what experiences would you say your feelings are rooted in?

Interviews are a great research tool. They allow you to gather rich information and draw more detailed conclusions than other research methods, taking into consideration nonverbal cues, off-the-cuff reactions, and emotional responses.

However, they can also be time-consuming and deceptively challenging to conduct properly. Smaller sample sizes can cause their validity and reliability to suffer, and there is an inherent risk of interviewer effect arising from accidentally leading questions.

Here are some advantages and disadvantages of each type of interview that can help you decide if you’d like to utilize this research method.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

The four most common types of interviews are:

• Structured interviews : The questions are predetermined in both topic and order. 
• Semi-structured interviews : A few questions are predetermined, but other questions aren’t planned.
• Unstructured interviews : None of the questions are predetermined.
• Focus group interviews : The questions are presented to a group instead of one individual.

The interviewer effect is a type of bias that emerges when a characteristic of an interviewer (race, age, gender identity, etc.) influences the responses given by the interviewee.

There is a risk of an interviewer effect in all types of interviews , but it can be mitigated by writing really high-quality interview questions.

Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favorably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys , but is most common in semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.

This type of bias can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behavior accordingly.

A focus group is a research method that brings together a small group of people to answer questions in a moderated setting. The group is chosen due to predefined demographic traits, and the questions are designed to shed light on a topic of interest. It is one of 4 types of interviews .

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

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How to carry out great interviews in qualitative research.

11 min read An interview is one of the most versatile methods used in qualitative research. Here’s what you need to know about conducting great qualitative interviews.

What is a qualitative research interview?

Qualitative research interviews are a mainstay among q ualitative research techniques, and have been in use for decades either as a primary data collection method or as an adjunct to a wider research process. A qualitative research interview is a one-to-one data collection session between a researcher and a participant. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face, over the phone or via video call using a service like Skype or Zoom.

There are three main types of qualitative research interview – structured, unstructured or semi-structured.

• Structured interviews Structured interviews are based around a schedule of predetermined questions and talking points that the researcher has developed. At their most rigid, structured interviews may have a precise wording and question order, meaning that they can be replicated across many different interviewers and participants with relatively consistent results.
• Unstructured interviews Unstructured interviews have no predetermined format, although that doesn’t mean they’re ad hoc or unplanned. An unstructured interview may outwardly resemble a normal conversation, but the interviewer will in fact be working carefully to make sure the right topics are addressed during the interaction while putting the participant at ease with a natural manner.
• Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews are the most common type of qualitative research interview, combining the informality and rapport of an unstructured interview with the consistency and replicability of a structured interview. The researcher will come prepared with questions and topics, but will not need to stick to precise wording. This blended approach can work well for in-depth interviews.

Free eBook: The qualitative research design handbook

What are the pros and cons of interviews in qualitative research?

As a qualitative research method interviewing is hard to beat, with applications in social research, market research, and even basic and clinical pharmacy. But like any aspect of the research process, it’s not without its limitations. Before choosing qualitative interviewing as your research method, it’s worth weighing up the pros and cons.

Pros of qualitative interviews:

• provide in-depth information and context
• can be used effectively when their are low numbers of participants
• provide an opportunity to discuss and explain questions
• useful for complex topics
• rich in data – in the case of in-person or video interviews , the researcher can observe body language and facial expression as well as the answers to questions

Cons of qualitative interviews:

• can be time-consuming to carry out
• costly when compared to some other research methods
• because of time and cost constraints, they often limit you to a small number of participants
• difficult to standardize your data across different researchers and participants unless the interviews are very tightly structured
• As the Open University of Hong Kong notes, qualitative interviews may take an emotional toll on interviewers

Qualitative interview guides

Semi-structured interviews are based on a qualitative interview guide, which acts as a road map for the researcher. While conducting interviews, the researcher can use the interview guide to help them stay focused on their research questions and make sure they cover all the topics they intend to.

An interview guide may include a list of questions written out in full, or it may be a set of bullet points grouped around particular topics. It can prompt the interviewer to dig deeper and ask probing questions during the interview if appropriate.

Consider writing out the project’s research question at the top of your interview guide, ahead of the interview questions. This may help you steer the interview in the right direction if it threatens to head off on a tangent.

Avoid bias in qualitative research interviews

According to Duke University , bias can create significant problems in your qualitative interview.

• Acquiescence bias is common to many qualitative methods, including focus groups. It occurs when the participant feels obliged to say what they think the researcher wants to hear. This can be especially problematic when there is a perceived power imbalance between participant and interviewer. To counteract this, Duke University’s experts recommend emphasizing the participant’s expertise in the subject being discussed, and the value of their contributions.
• Interviewer bias is when the interviewer’s own feelings about the topic come to light through hand gestures, facial expressions or turns of phrase. Duke’s recommendation is to stick to scripted phrases where this is an issue, and to make sure researchers become very familiar with the interview guide or script before conducting interviews, so that they can hone their delivery.

What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?

The interview questions you ask need to be carefully considered both before and during the data collection process. As well as considering the topics you’ll cover, you will need to think carefully about the way you ask questions.

Open-ended interview questions – which cannot be answered with a ‘yes’ ‘no’ or ‘maybe’ – are recommended by many researchers as a way to pursue in depth information.

An example of an open-ended question is “What made you want to move to the East Coast?” This will prompt the participant to consider different factors and select at least one. Having thought about it carefully, they may give you more detailed information about their reasoning.

A closed-ended question , such as “Would you recommend your neighborhood to a friend?” can be answered without too much deliberation, and without giving much information about personal thoughts, opinions and feelings.

Follow-up questions can be used to delve deeper into the research topic and to get more detail from open-ended questions. Examples of follow-up questions include:

• What makes you say that?
• What do you mean by that?
• Can you tell me more about X?
• What did/does that mean to you?

As well as avoiding closed-ended questions, be wary of leading questions. As with other qualitative research techniques such as surveys or focus groups, these can introduce bias in your data. Leading questions presume a certain point of view shared by the interviewer and participant, and may even suggest a foregone conclusion.

An example of a leading question might be: “You moved to New York in 1990, didn’t you?” In answering the question, the participant is much more likely to agree than disagree. This may be down to acquiescence bias or a belief that the interviewer has checked the information and already knows the correct answer.

Other leading questions involve adjectival phrases or other wording that introduces negative or positive connotations about a particular topic. An example of this kind of leading question is: “Many employees dislike wearing masks to work. How do you feel about this?” It presumes a positive opinion and the participant may be swayed by it, or not want to contradict the interviewer.

Harvard University’s guidelines for qualitative interview research add that you shouldn’t be afraid to ask embarrassing questions – “if you don’t ask, they won’t tell.” Bear in mind though that too much probing around sensitive topics may cause the interview participant to withdraw. The Harvard guidelines recommend leaving sensitive questions til the later stages of the interview when a rapport has been established.

More tips for conducting qualitative interviews

Observing a participant’s body language can give you important data about their thoughts and feelings. It can also help you decide when to broach a topic, and whether to use a follow-up question or return to the subject later in the interview.

Be conscious that the participant may regard you as the expert, not themselves. In order to make sure they express their opinions openly, use active listening skills like verbal encouragement and paraphrasing and clarifying their meaning to show how much you value what they are saying.

Remember that part of the goal is to leave the interview participant feeling good about volunteering their time and their thought process to your research. Aim to make them feel empowered , respected and heard.

Unstructured interviews can demand a lot of a researcher, both cognitively and emotionally. Be sure to leave time in between in-depth interviews when scheduling your data collection to make sure you maintain the quality of your data, as well as your own well-being .

Recording and transcribing interviews

Historically, recording qualitative research interviews and then transcribing the conversation manually would have represented a significant part of the cost and time involved in research projects that collect qualitative data.

Fortunately, researchers now have access to digital recording tools, and even speech-to-text technology that can automatically transcribe interview data using AI and machine learning. This type of tool can also be used to capture qualitative data from qualitative research (focus groups,ect.) making this kind of social research or market research much less time consuming.

Data analysis

Qualitative interview data is unstructured, rich in content and difficult to analyze without the appropriate tools. Fortunately, machine learning and AI can once again make things faster and easier when you use qualitative methods like the research interview.

Text analysis tools and natural language processing software can ‘read’ your transcripts and voice data and identify patterns and trends across large volumes of text or speech. They can also perform khttps://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/sentiment-analysis/

which assesses overall trends in opinion and provides an unbiased overall summary of how participants are feeling.

Another feature of text analysis tools is their ability to categorize information by topic, sorting it into groupings that help you organize your data according to the topic discussed.

All in all, interviews are a valuable technique for qualitative research in business, yielding rich and detailed unstructured data. Historically, they have only been limited by the human capacity to interpret and communicate results and conclusions, which demands considerable time and skill.

When you combine this data with AI tools that can interpret it quickly and automatically, it becomes easy to analyze and structure, dovetailing perfectly with your other business data. An additional benefit of natural language analysis tools is that they are free of subjective biases, and can replicate the same approach across as much data as you choose. By combining human research skills with machine analysis, qualitative research methods such as interviews are more valuable than ever to your business.

Related resources

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Chapter 11. Interviewing

Introduction.

Interviewing people is at the heart of qualitative research. It is not merely a way to collect data but an intrinsically rewarding activity—an interaction between two people that holds the potential for greater understanding and interpersonal development. Unlike many of our daily interactions with others that are fairly shallow and mundane, sitting down with a person for an hour or two and really listening to what they have to say is a profound and deep enterprise, one that can provide not only “data” for you, the interviewer, but also self-understanding and a feeling of being heard for the interviewee. I always approach interviewing with a deep appreciation for the opportunity it gives me to understand how other people experience the world. That said, there is not one kind of interview but many, and some of these are shallower than others. This chapter will provide you with an overview of interview techniques but with a special focus on the in-depth semistructured interview guide approach, which is the approach most widely used in social science research.

An interview can be variously defined as “a conversation with a purpose” ( Lune and Berg 2018 ) and an attempt to understand the world from the point of view of the person being interviewed: “to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations” ( Kvale 2007 ). It is a form of active listening in which the interviewer steers the conversation to subjects and topics of interest to their research but also manages to leave enough space for those interviewed to say surprising things. Achieving that balance is a tricky thing, which is why most practitioners believe interviewing is both an art and a science. In my experience as a teacher, there are some students who are “natural” interviewers (often they are introverts), but anyone can learn to conduct interviews, and everyone, even those of us who have been doing this for years, can improve their interviewing skills. This might be a good time to highlight the fact that the interview is a product between interviewer and interviewee and that this product is only as good as the rapport established between the two participants. Active listening is the key to establishing this necessary rapport.

Patton ( 2002 ) makes the argument that we use interviews because there are certain things that are not observable. In particular, “we cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and intentions. We cannot observe behaviors that took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world. We have to ask people questions about those things” ( 341 ).

Types of Interviews

There are several distinct types of interviews. Imagine a continuum (figure 11.1). On one side are unstructured conversations—the kind you have with your friends. No one is in control of those conversations, and what you talk about is often random—whatever pops into your head. There is no secret, underlying purpose to your talking—if anything, the purpose is to talk to and engage with each other, and the words you use and the things you talk about are a little beside the point. An unstructured interview is a little like this informal conversation, except that one of the parties to the conversation (you, the researcher) does have an underlying purpose, and that is to understand the other person. You are not friends speaking for no purpose, but it might feel just as unstructured to the “interviewee” in this scenario. That is one side of the continuum. On the other side are fully structured and standardized survey-type questions asked face-to-face. Here it is very clear who is asking the questions and who is answering them. This doesn’t feel like a conversation at all! A lot of people new to interviewing have this ( erroneously !) in mind when they think about interviews as data collection. Somewhere in the middle of these two extreme cases is the “ semistructured” interview , in which the researcher uses an “interview guide” to gently move the conversation to certain topics and issues. This is the primary form of interviewing for qualitative social scientists and will be what I refer to as interviewing for the rest of this chapter, unless otherwise specified.

Informal (unstructured conversations). This is the most “open-ended” approach to interviewing. It is particularly useful in conjunction with observational methods (see chapters 13 and 14). There are no predetermined questions. Each interview will be different. Imagine you are researching the Oregon Country Fair, an annual event in Veneta, Oregon, that includes live music, artisan craft booths, face painting, and a lot of people walking through forest paths. It’s unlikely that you will be able to get a person to sit down with you and talk intensely about a set of questions for an hour and a half. But you might be able to sidle up to several people and engage with them about their experiences at the fair. You might have a general interest in what attracts people to these events, so you could start a conversation by asking strangers why they are here or why they come back every year. That’s it. Then you have a conversation that may lead you anywhere. Maybe one person tells a long story about how their parents brought them here when they were a kid. A second person talks about how this is better than Burning Man. A third person shares their favorite traveling band. And yet another enthuses about the public library in the woods. During your conversations, you also talk about a lot of other things—the weather, the utilikilts for sale, the fact that a favorite food booth has disappeared. It’s all good. You may not be able to record these conversations. Instead, you might jot down notes on the spot and then, when you have the time, write down as much as you can remember about the conversations in long fieldnotes. Later, you will have to sit down with these fieldnotes and try to make sense of all the information (see chapters 18 and 19).

Interview guide ( semistructured interview ). This is the primary type employed by social science qualitative researchers. The researcher creates an “interview guide” in advance, which she uses in every interview. In theory, every person interviewed is asked the same questions. In practice, every person interviewed is asked mostly the same topics but not always the same questions, as the whole point of a “guide” is that it guides the direction of the conversation but does not command it. The guide is typically between five and ten questions or question areas, sometimes with suggested follow-ups or prompts . For example, one question might be “What was it like growing up in Eastern Oregon?” with prompts such as “Did you live in a rural area? What kind of high school did you attend?” to help the conversation develop. These interviews generally take place in a quiet place (not a busy walkway during a festival) and are recorded. The recordings are transcribed, and those transcriptions then become the “data” that is analyzed (see chapters 18 and 19). The conventional length of one of these types of interviews is between one hour and two hours, optimally ninety minutes. Less than one hour doesn’t allow for much development of questions and thoughts, and two hours (or more) is a lot of time to ask someone to sit still and answer questions. If you have a lot of ground to cover, and the person is willing, I highly recommend two separate interview sessions, with the second session being slightly shorter than the first (e.g., ninety minutes the first day, sixty minutes the second). There are lots of good reasons for this, but the most compelling one is that this allows you to listen to the first day’s recording and catch anything interesting you might have missed in the moment and so develop follow-up questions that can probe further. This also allows the person being interviewed to have some time to think about the issues raised in the interview and go a little deeper with their answers.

Standardized questionnaire with open responses ( structured interview ). This is the type of interview a lot of people have in mind when they hear “interview”: a researcher comes to your door with a clipboard and proceeds to ask you a series of questions. These questions are all the same whoever answers the door; they are “standardized.” Both the wording and the exact order are important, as people’s responses may vary depending on how and when a question is asked. These are qualitative only in that the questions allow for “open-ended responses”: people can say whatever they want rather than select from a predetermined menu of responses. For example, a survey I collaborated on included this open-ended response question: “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?” Some of the answers were simply one word long (e.g., “debt”), and others were long statements with stories and personal anecdotes. It is possible to be surprised by the responses. Although it’s a stretch to call this kind of questioning a conversation, it does allow the person answering the question some degree of freedom in how they answer.

Survey questionnaire with closed responses (not an interview!). Standardized survey questions with specific answer options (e.g., closed responses) are not really interviews at all, and they do not generate qualitative data. For example, if we included five options for the question “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?”—(1) debt, (2) social networks, (3) alienation, (4) family doesn’t understand, (5) type of grad program—we leave no room for surprises at all. Instead, we would most likely look at patterns around these responses, thinking quantitatively rather than qualitatively (e.g., using regression analysis techniques, we might find that working-class sociologists were twice as likely to bring up alienation). It can sometimes be confusing for new students because the very same survey can include both closed-ended and open-ended questions. The key is to think about how these will be analyzed and to what level surprises are possible. If your plan is to turn all responses into a number and make predictions about correlations and relationships, you are no longer conducting qualitative research. This is true even if you are conducting this survey face-to-face with a real live human. Closed-response questions are not conversations of any kind, purposeful or not.

In summary, the semistructured interview guide approach is the predominant form of interviewing for social science qualitative researchers because it allows a high degree of freedom of responses from those interviewed (thus allowing for novel discoveries) while still maintaining some connection to a research question area or topic of interest. The rest of the chapter assumes the employment of this form.

Creating an Interview Guide

Your interview guide is the instrument used to bridge your research question(s) and what the people you are interviewing want to tell you. Unlike a standardized questionnaire, the questions actually asked do not need to be exactly what you have written down in your guide. The guide is meant to create space for those you are interviewing to talk about the phenomenon of interest, but sometimes you are not even sure what that phenomenon is until you start asking questions. A priority in creating an interview guide is to ensure it offers space. One of the worst mistakes is to create questions that are so specific that the person answering them will not stray. Relatedly, questions that sound “academic” will shut down a lot of respondents. A good interview guide invites respondents to talk about what is important to them, not feel like they are performing or being evaluated by you.

Good interview questions should not sound like your “research question” at all. For example, let’s say your research question is “How do patriarchal assumptions influence men’s understanding of climate change and responses to climate change?” It would be worse than unhelpful to ask a respondent, “How do your assumptions about the role of men affect your understanding of climate change?” You need to unpack this into manageable nuggets that pull your respondent into the area of interest without leading him anywhere. You could start by asking him what he thinks about climate change in general. Or, even better, whether he has any concerns about heatwaves or increased tornadoes or polar icecaps melting. Once he starts talking about that, you can ask follow-up questions that bring in issues around gendered roles, perhaps asking if he is married (to a woman) and whether his wife shares his thoughts and, if not, how they negotiate that difference. The fact is, you won’t really know the right questions to ask until he starts talking.

There are several distinct types of questions that can be used in your interview guide, either as main questions or as follow-up probes. If you remember that the point is to leave space for the respondent, you will craft a much more effective interview guide! You will also want to think about the place of time in both the questions themselves (past, present, future orientations) and the sequencing of the questions.

Researcher Note

Suggestion : As you read the next three sections (types of questions, temporality, question sequence), have in mind a particular research question, and try to draft questions and sequence them in a way that opens space for a discussion that helps you answer your research question.

Type of Questions

Experience and behavior questions ask about what a respondent does regularly (their behavior) or has done (their experience). These are relatively easy questions for people to answer because they appear more “factual” and less subjective. This makes them good opening questions. For the study on climate change above, you might ask, “Have you ever experienced an unusual weather event? What happened?” Or “You said you work outside? What is a typical summer workday like for you? How do you protect yourself from the heat?”

Opinion and values questions , in contrast, ask questions that get inside the minds of those you are interviewing. “Do you think climate change is real? Who or what is responsible for it?” are two such questions. Note that you don’t have to literally ask, “What is your opinion of X?” but you can find a way to ask the specific question relevant to the conversation you are having. These questions are a bit trickier to ask because the answers you get may depend in part on how your respondent perceives you and whether they want to please you or not. We’ve talked a fair amount about being reflective. Here is another place where this comes into play. You need to be aware of the effect your presence might have on the answers you are receiving and adjust accordingly. If you are a woman who is perceived as liberal asking a man who identifies as conservative about climate change, there is a lot of subtext that can be going on in the interview. There is no one right way to resolve this, but you must at least be aware of it.

Feeling questions are questions that ask respondents to draw on their emotional responses. It’s pretty common for academic researchers to forget that we have bodies and emotions, but people’s understandings of the world often operate at this affective level, sometimes unconsciously or barely consciously. It is a good idea to include questions that leave space for respondents to remember, imagine, or relive emotional responses to particular phenomena. “What was it like when you heard your cousin’s house burned down in that wildfire?” doesn’t explicitly use any emotion words, but it allows your respondent to remember what was probably a pretty emotional day. And if they respond emotionally neutral, that is pretty interesting data too. Note that asking someone “How do you feel about X” is not always going to evoke an emotional response, as they might simply turn around and respond with “I think that…” It is better to craft a question that actually pushes the respondent into the affective category. This might be a specific follow-up to an experience and behavior question —for example, “You just told me about your daily routine during the summer heat. Do you worry it is going to get worse?” or “Have you ever been afraid it will be too hot to get your work accomplished?”

Knowledge questions ask respondents what they actually know about something factual. We have to be careful when we ask these types of questions so that respondents do not feel like we are evaluating them (which would shut them down), but, for example, it is helpful to know when you are having a conversation about climate change that your respondent does in fact know that unusual weather events have increased and that these have been attributed to climate change! Asking these questions can set the stage for deeper questions and can ensure that the conversation makes the same kind of sense to both participants. For example, a conversation about political polarization can be put back on track once you realize that the respondent doesn’t really have a clear understanding that there are two parties in the US. Instead of asking a series of questions about Republicans and Democrats, you might shift your questions to talk more generally about political disagreements (e.g., “people against abortion”). And sometimes what you do want to know is the level of knowledge about a particular program or event (e.g., “Are you aware you can discharge your student loans through the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program?”).

Sensory questions call on all senses of the respondent to capture deeper responses. These are particularly helpful in sparking memory. “Think back to your childhood in Eastern Oregon. Describe the smells, the sounds…” Or you could use these questions to help a person access the full experience of a setting they customarily inhabit: “When you walk through the doors to your office building, what do you see? Hear? Smell?” As with feeling questions , these questions often supplement experience and behavior questions . They are another way of allowing your respondent to report fully and deeply rather than remain on the surface.

Creative questions employ illustrative examples, suggested scenarios, or simulations to get respondents to think more deeply about an issue, topic, or experience. There are many options here. In The Trouble with Passion , Erin Cech ( 2021 ) provides a scenario in which “Joe” is trying to decide whether to stay at his decent but boring computer job or follow his passion by opening a restaurant. She asks respondents, “What should Joe do?” Their answers illuminate the attraction of “passion” in job selection. In my own work, I have used a news story about an upwardly mobile young man who no longer has time to see his mother and sisters to probe respondents’ feelings about the costs of social mobility. Jessi Streib and Betsy Leondar-Wright have used single-page cartoon “scenes” to elicit evaluations of potential racial discrimination, sexual harassment, and classism. Barbara Sutton ( 2010 ) has employed lists of words (“strong,” “mother,” “victim”) on notecards she fans out and asks her female respondents to select and discuss.

Background/Demographic Questions

You most definitely will want to know more about the person you are interviewing in terms of conventional demographic information, such as age, race, gender identity, occupation, and educational attainment. These are not questions that normally open up inquiry. [1] For this reason, my practice has been to include a separate “demographic questionnaire” sheet that I ask each respondent to fill out at the conclusion of the interview. Only include those aspects that are relevant to your study. For example, if you are not exploring religion or religious affiliation, do not include questions about a person’s religion on the demographic sheet. See the example provided at the end of this chapter.

Temporality

Any type of question can have a past, present, or future orientation. For example, if you are asking a behavior question about workplace routine, you might ask the respondent to talk about past work, present work, and ideal (future) work. Similarly, if you want to understand how people cope with natural disasters, you might ask your respondent how they felt then during the wildfire and now in retrospect and whether and to what extent they have concerns for future wildfire disasters. It’s a relatively simple suggestion—don’t forget to ask about past, present, and future—but it can have a big impact on the quality of the responses you receive.

Question Sequence

Having a list of good questions or good question areas is not enough to make a good interview guide. You will want to pay attention to the order in which you ask your questions. Even though any one respondent can derail this order (perhaps by jumping to answer a question you haven’t yet asked), a good advance plan is always helpful. When thinking about sequence, remember that your goal is to get your respondent to open up to you and to say things that might surprise you. To establish rapport, it is best to start with nonthreatening questions. Asking about the present is often the safest place to begin, followed by the past (they have to know you a little bit to get there), and lastly, the future (talking about hopes and fears requires the most rapport). To allow for surprises, it is best to move from very general questions to more particular questions only later in the interview. This ensures that respondents have the freedom to bring up the topics that are relevant to them rather than feel like they are constrained to answer you narrowly. For example, refrain from asking about particular emotions until these have come up previously—don’t lead with them. Often, your more particular questions will emerge only during the course of the interview, tailored to what is emerging in conversation.

Once you have a set of questions, read through them aloud and imagine you are being asked the same questions. Does the set of questions have a natural flow? Would you be willing to answer the very first question to a total stranger? Does your sequence establish facts and experiences before moving on to opinions and values? Did you include prefatory statements, where necessary; transitions; and other announcements? These can be as simple as “Hey, we talked a lot about your experiences as a barista while in college.… Now I am turning to something completely different: how you managed friendships in college.” That is an abrupt transition, but it has been softened by your acknowledgment of that.

Probes and Flexibility

Once you have the interview guide, you will also want to leave room for probes and follow-up questions. As in the sample probe included here, you can write out the obvious probes and follow-up questions in advance. You might not need them, as your respondent might anticipate them and include full responses to the original question. Or you might need to tailor them to how your respondent answered the question. Some common probes and follow-up questions include asking for more details (When did that happen? Who else was there?), asking for elaboration (Could you say more about that?), asking for clarification (Does that mean what I think it means or something else? I understand what you mean, but someone else reading the transcript might not), and asking for contrast or comparison (How did this experience compare with last year’s event?). “Probing is a skill that comes from knowing what to look for in the interview, listening carefully to what is being said and what is not said, and being sensitive to the feedback needs of the person being interviewed” ( Patton 2002:374 ). It takes work! And energy. I and many other interviewers I know report feeling emotionally and even physically drained after conducting an interview. You are tasked with active listening and rearranging your interview guide as needed on the fly. If you only ask the questions written down in your interview guide with no deviations, you are doing it wrong. [2]

The Final Question

Every interview guide should include a very open-ended final question that allows for the respondent to say whatever it is they have been dying to tell you but you’ve forgotten to ask. About half the time they are tired too and will tell you they have nothing else to say. But incredibly, some of the most honest and complete responses take place here, at the end of a long interview. You have to realize that the person being interviewed is often discovering things about themselves as they talk to you and that this process of discovery can lead to new insights for them. Making space at the end is therefore crucial. Be sure you convey that you actually do want them to tell you more, that the offer of “anything else?” is not read as an empty convention where the polite response is no. Here is where you can pull from that active listening and tailor the final question to the particular person. For example, “I’ve asked you a lot of questions about what it was like to live through that wildfire. I’m wondering if there is anything I’ve forgotten to ask, especially because I haven’t had that experience myself” is a much more inviting final question than “Great. Anything you want to add?” It’s also helpful to convey to the person that you have the time to listen to their full answer, even if the allotted time is at the end. After all, there are no more questions to ask, so the respondent knows exactly how much time is left. Do them the courtesy of listening to them!

Conducting the Interview

Once you have your interview guide, you are on your way to conducting your first interview. I always practice my interview guide with a friend or family member. I do this even when the questions don’t make perfect sense for them, as it still helps me realize which questions make no sense, are poorly worded (too academic), or don’t follow sequentially. I also practice the routine I will use for interviewing, which goes something like this:

• Introduce myself and reintroduce the study
• Provide consent form and ask them to sign and retain/return copy
• Ask if they have any questions about the study before we begin
• Ask if I can begin recording
• Ask questions (from interview guide)
• Turn off the recording device
• Ask if they are willing to fill out my demographic questionnaire
• Collect questionnaire and, without looking at the answers, place in same folder as signed consent form
• Thank them and depart

A note on remote interviewing: Interviews have traditionally been conducted face-to-face in a private or quiet public setting. You don’t want a lot of background noise, as this will make transcriptions difficult. During the recent global pandemic, many interviewers, myself included, learned the benefits of interviewing remotely. Although face-to-face is still preferable for many reasons, Zoom interviewing is not a bad alternative, and it does allow more interviews across great distances. Zoom also includes automatic transcription, which significantly cuts down on the time it normally takes to convert our conversations into “data” to be analyzed. These automatic transcriptions are not perfect, however, and you will still need to listen to the recording and clarify and clean up the transcription. Nor do automatic transcriptions include notations of body language or change of tone, which you may want to include. When interviewing remotely, you will want to collect the consent form before you meet: ask them to read, sign, and return it as an email attachment. I think it is better to ask for the demographic questionnaire after the interview, but because some respondents may never return it then, it is probably best to ask for this at the same time as the consent form, in advance of the interview.

What should you bring to the interview? I would recommend bringing two copies of the consent form (one for you and one for the respondent), a demographic questionnaire, a manila folder in which to place the signed consent form and filled-out demographic questionnaire, a printed copy of your interview guide (I print with three-inch right margins so I can jot down notes on the page next to relevant questions), a pen, a recording device, and water.

After the interview, you will want to secure the signed consent form in a locked filing cabinet (if in print) or a password-protected folder on your computer. Using Excel or a similar program that allows tables/spreadsheets, create an identifying number for your interview that links to the consent form without using the name of your respondent. For example, let’s say that I conduct interviews with US politicians, and the first person I meet with is George W. Bush. I will assign the transcription the number “INT#001” and add it to the signed consent form. [3] The signed consent form goes into a locked filing cabinet, and I never use the name “George W. Bush” again. I take the information from the demographic sheet, open my Excel spreadsheet, and add the relevant information in separate columns for the row INT#001: White, male, Republican. When I interview Bill Clinton as my second interview, I include a second row: INT#002: White, male, Democrat. And so on. The only link to the actual name of the respondent and this information is the fact that the consent form (unavailable to anyone but me) has stamped on it the interview number.

Many students get very nervous before their first interview. Actually, many of us are always nervous before the interview! But do not worry—this is normal, and it does pass. Chances are, you will be pleasantly surprised at how comfortable it begins to feel. These “purposeful conversations” are often a delight for both participants. This is not to say that sometimes things go wrong. I often have my students practice several “bad scenarios” (e.g., a respondent that you cannot get to open up; a respondent who is too talkative and dominates the conversation, steering it away from the topics you are interested in; emotions that completely take over; or shocking disclosures you are ill-prepared to handle), but most of the time, things go quite well. Be prepared for the unexpected, but know that the reason interviews are so popular as a technique of data collection is that they are usually richly rewarding for both participants.

One thing that I stress to my methods students and remind myself about is that interviews are still conversations between people. If there’s something you might feel uncomfortable asking someone about in a “normal” conversation, you will likely also feel a bit of discomfort asking it in an interview. Maybe more importantly, your respondent may feel uncomfortable. Social research—especially about inequality—can be uncomfortable. And it’s easy to slip into an abstract, intellectualized, or removed perspective as an interviewer. This is one reason trying out interview questions is important. Another is that sometimes the question sounds good in your head but doesn’t work as well out loud in practice. I learned this the hard way when a respondent asked me how I would answer the question I had just posed, and I realized that not only did I not really know how I would answer it, but I also wasn’t quite as sure I knew what I was asking as I had thought.

—Elizabeth M. Lee, Associate Professor of Sociology at Saint Joseph’s University, author of Class and Campus Life , and co-author of Geographies of Campus Inequality

How Many Interviews?

Your research design has included a targeted number of interviews and a recruitment plan (see chapter 5). Follow your plan, but remember that “ saturation ” is your goal. You interview as many people as you can until you reach a point at which you are no longer surprised by what they tell you. This means not that no one after your first twenty interviews will have surprising, interesting stories to tell you but rather that the picture you are forming about the phenomenon of interest to you from a research perspective has come into focus, and none of the interviews are substantially refocusing that picture. That is when you should stop collecting interviews. Note that to know when you have reached this, you will need to read your transcripts as you go. More about this in chapters 18 and 19.

Your Final Product: The Ideal Interview Transcript

A good interview transcript will demonstrate a subtly controlled conversation by the skillful interviewer. In general, you want to see replies that are about one paragraph long, not short sentences and not running on for several pages. Although it is sometimes necessary to follow respondents down tangents, it is also often necessary to pull them back to the questions that form the basis of your research study. This is not really a free conversation, although it may feel like that to the person you are interviewing.

Final Tips from an Interview Master

Annette Lareau is arguably one of the masters of the trade. In Listening to People , she provides several guidelines for good interviews and then offers a detailed example of an interview gone wrong and how it could be addressed (please see the “Further Readings” at the end of this chapter). Here is an abbreviated version of her set of guidelines: (1) interview respondents who are experts on the subjects of most interest to you (as a corollary, don’t ask people about things they don’t know); (2) listen carefully and talk as little as possible; (3) keep in mind what you want to know and why you want to know it; (4) be a proactive interviewer (subtly guide the conversation); (5) assure respondents that there aren’t any right or wrong answers; (6) use the respondent’s own words to probe further (this both allows you to accurately identify what you heard and pushes the respondent to explain further); (7) reuse effective probes (don’t reinvent the wheel as you go—if repeating the words back works, do it again and again); (8) focus on learning the subjective meanings that events or experiences have for a respondent; (9) don’t be afraid to ask a question that draws on your own knowledge (unlike trial lawyers who are trained never to ask a question for which they don’t already know the answer, sometimes it’s worth it to ask risky questions based on your hypotheses or just plain hunches); (10) keep thinking while you are listening (so difficult…and important); (11) return to a theme raised by a respondent if you want further information; (12) be mindful of power inequalities (and never ever coerce a respondent to continue the interview if they want out); (13) take control with overly talkative respondents; (14) expect overly succinct responses, and develop strategies for probing further; (15) balance digging deep and moving on; (16) develop a plan to deflect questions (e.g., let them know you are happy to answer any questions at the end of the interview, but you don’t want to take time away from them now); and at the end, (17) check to see whether you have asked all your questions. You don’t always have to ask everyone the same set of questions, but if there is a big area you have forgotten to cover, now is the time to recover ( Lareau 2021:93–103 ).

Sample: Demographic Questionnaire

ASA Taskforce on First-Generation and Working-Class Persons in Sociology – Class Effects on Career Success

Supplementary Demographic Questionnaire

Thank you for your participation in this interview project. We would like to collect a few pieces of key demographic information from you to supplement our analyses. Your answers to these questions will be kept confidential and stored by ID number. All of your responses here are entirely voluntary!

What best captures your race/ethnicity? (please check any/all that apply)

• White (Non Hispanic/Latina/o/x)
• Black or African American
• Hispanic, Latino/a/x of Spanish
• Asian or Asian American
• American Indian or Alaska Native
• Middle Eastern or North African
• Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
• Other : (Please write in: ________________)

What is your current position?

• Grad Student
• Full Professor

Please check any and all of the following that apply to you:

• I identify as a working-class academic
• I was the first in my family to graduate from college
• I grew up poor

What best reflects your gender?

• Transgender female/Transgender woman
• Transgender male/Transgender man
• Gender queer/ Gender nonconforming

Anything else you would like us to know about you?

Example: Interview Guide

In this example, follow-up prompts are italicized.  Note the sequence of questions.  That second question often elicits an entire life history , answering several later questions in advance.

Introduction Script/Question

Thank you for participating in our survey of ASA members who identify as first-generation or working-class.  As you may have heard, ASA has sponsored a taskforce on first-generation and working-class persons in sociology and we are interested in hearing from those who so identify.  Your participation in this interview will help advance our knowledge in this area.

• The first thing we would like to as you is why you have volunteered to be part of this study? What does it mean to you be first-gen or working class?  Why were you willing to be interviewed?
• How did you decide to become a sociologist?
• Can you tell me a little bit about where you grew up? ( prompts: what did your parent(s) do for a living?  What kind of high school did you attend?)
• Has this identity been salient to your experience? (how? How much?)
• How welcoming was your grad program? Your first academic employer?
• Why did you decide to pursue sociology at the graduate level?
• Did you experience culture shock in college? In graduate school?
• Has your FGWC status shaped how you’ve thought about where you went to school? debt? etc?
• Were you mentored? How did this work (not work)?  How might it?
• What did you consider when deciding where to go to grad school? Where to apply for your first position?
• What, to you, is a mark of career success? Have you achieved that success?  What has helped or hindered your pursuit of success?
• Do you think sociology, as a field, cares about prestige?
• Let’s talk a little bit about intersectionality. How does being first-gen/working class work alongside other identities that are important to you?
• What do your friends and family think about your career? Have you had any difficulty relating to family members or past friends since becoming highly educated?
• Do you have any debt from college/grad school? Are you concerned about this?  Could you explain more about how you paid for college/grad school?  (here, include assistance from family, fellowships, scholarships, etc.)
• (You’ve mentioned issues or obstacles you had because of your background.) What could have helped?  Or, who or what did? Can you think of fortuitous moments in your career?
• Do you have any regrets about the path you took?
• Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything that the Taskforce should take note of, that we did not ask you about here?

Further Readings

Britten, Nicky. 1995. “Qualitative Interviews in Medical Research.” BMJ: British Medical Journal 31(6999):251–253. A good basic overview of interviewing particularly useful for students of public health and medical research generally.

Corbin, Juliet, and Janice M. Morse. 2003. “The Unstructured Interactive Interview: Issues of Reciprocity and Risks When Dealing with Sensitive Topics.” Qualitative Inquiry 9(3):335–354. Weighs the potential benefits and harms of conducting interviews on topics that may cause emotional distress. Argues that the researcher’s skills and code of ethics should ensure that the interviewing process provides more of a benefit to both participant and researcher than a harm to the former.

Gerson, Kathleen, and Sarah Damaske. 2020. The Science and Art of Interviewing . New York: Oxford University Press. A useful guidebook/textbook for both undergraduates and graduate students, written by sociologists.

Kvale, Steiner. 2007. Doing Interviews . London: SAGE. An easy-to-follow guide to conducting and analyzing interviews by psychologists.

Lamont, Michèle, and Ann Swidler. 2014. “Methodological Pluralism and the Possibilities and Limits of Interviewing.” Qualitative Sociology 37(2):153–171. Written as a response to various debates surrounding the relative value of interview-based studies and ethnographic studies defending the particular strengths of interviewing. This is a must-read article for anyone seriously engaging in qualitative research!

Pugh, Allison J. 2013. “What Good Are Interviews for Thinking about Culture? Demystifying Interpretive Analysis.” American Journal of Cultural Sociology 1(1):42–68. Another defense of interviewing written against those who champion ethnographic methods as superior, particularly in the area of studying culture. A classic.

Rapley, Timothy John. 2001. “The ‘Artfulness’ of Open-Ended Interviewing: Some considerations in analyzing interviews.” Qualitative Research 1(3):303–323. Argues for the importance of “local context” of data production (the relationship built between interviewer and interviewee, for example) in properly analyzing interview data.

Weiss, Robert S. 1995. Learning from Strangers: The Art and Method of Qualitative Interview Studies . New York: Simon and Schuster. A classic and well-regarded textbook on interviewing. Because Weiss has extensive experience conducting surveys, he contrasts the qualitative interview with the survey questionnaire well; particularly useful for those trained in the latter.

• I say “normally” because how people understand their various identities can itself be an expansive topic of inquiry. Here, I am merely talking about collecting otherwise unexamined demographic data, similar to how we ask people to check boxes on surveys. ↵
• Again, this applies to “semistructured in-depth interviewing.” When conducting standardized questionnaires, you will want to ask each question exactly as written, without deviations! ↵
• I always include “INT” in the number because I sometimes have other kinds of data with their own numbering: FG#001 would mean the first focus group, for example. I also always include three-digit spaces, as this allows for up to 999 interviews (or, more realistically, allows for me to interview up to one hundred persons without having to reset my numbering system). ↵

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

A document listing key questions and question areas for use during an interview.  It is used most often for semi-structured interviews.  A good interview guide may have no more than ten primary questions for two hours of interviewing, but these ten questions will be supplemented by probes and relevant follow-ups throughout the interview.  Most IRBs require the inclusion of the interview guide in applications for review.  See also interview and  semi-structured interview .

A data-collection method that relies on casual, conversational, and informal interviewing.  Despite its apparent conversational nature, the researcher usually has a set of particular questions or question areas in mind but allows the interview to unfold spontaneously.  This is a common data-collection technique among ethnographers.  Compare to the semi-structured or in-depth interview .

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview.  The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences.  It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview.  See also interview and  interview guide .

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context.  Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Follow-up questions used in a semi-structured interview  to elicit further elaboration.  Suggested prompts can be included in the interview guide  to be used/deployed depending on how the initial question was answered or if the topic of the prompt does not emerge spontaneously.

A form of interview that follows a strict set of questions, asked in a particular order, for all interview subjects.  The questions are also the kind that elicits short answers, and the data is more “informative” than probing.  This is often used in mixed-methods studies, accompanying a survey instrument.  Because there is no room for nuance or the exploration of meaning in structured interviews, qualitative researchers tend to employ semi-structured interviews instead.  See also interview.

The point at which you can conclude data collection because every person you are interviewing, the interaction you are observing, or content you are analyzing merely confirms what you have already noted.  Achieving saturation is often used as the justification for the final sample size.

An interview variant in which a person’s life story is elicited in a narrative form.  Turning points and key themes are established by the researcher and used as data points for further analysis.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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If you’re putting together a news report, a documentary film, or gathering oral history for any kind of personal project, you’ll likely need to perform 1 or more research interviews to gather the information you need. While these interviews can be relatively informal (unless they’re being broadcast live), you’ll need to make a few preparations beforehand, including having a written list of questions to ask. Let the interviewee answer the questions as they see fit, and guide the interview so that all of your questions are adequately answered.

Laying Groundwork for an Interview

• For example, if you’re interviewing a local biologist about declining frog populations, read up on what types of frogs and frog predators inhabit the area, and find out how much of the frog population has died off.

• If you set up the interview over the phone or via email, say something like, “Thank you for agreeing to answer a few questions. I’m mostly interested in asking you about your extensive knowledge of the publishing industry. I have about 10 questions, but I don’t think this will take more than 30 minutes.”

• If you’re conducting the interview over the phone, find a time when you and the interviewee are both free.

• Don’t tell yourself that you’ll remember the interview! If you don’t record the questions and answers, you’re likely to forget details.

Writing and Asking Effective Questions

• “How did you get your start in the industry?”
• “What’s your favorite type of book to see published?”
• “What would you recommend for any young men or women who’d like to get into publishing?”

• For example, if you ask something like, “Do you think the city planners have done a good job of laying out the new downtown area?” the subject can just answer “yes” or “no.”
• Instead, ask, “What do you think are some of the strengths and weaknesses of the ways the city planners laid out the new downtown area?”

• For example, avoid a question like, “Isn’t it true that the publishing industry refuses to pay women as much as it pays men?”
• Try asking instead: “What are your views on what some people perceive to be a gender pay gap in the industry?”

• For example, avoid asking, “Do pay-to-print or vanity presses hurt the fiscal state of big publishing houses?”
• Instead, ask something like, “Are there any trends within publishing that you think are harmful to the industry overall?”

Behaving During the Interview

• If you'd rather not ask immediately before the interview, ask the interviewee to fill out a consent form a week before the interview takes place. If the subject refuses to give their consent, you'll be unable to legally do the interview.
• For a sample consent form, look online at: https://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/consent-form.htm .

• If the interviewee lingers too long on a specific question, try moving things along. Say something like, “I appreciate your insights. I’d like to turn to a different topic at this point: what’s the best college major for a career in publishing?”

• For example, even if the interviewee says something surprising like: “I think it’s good that the frogs are dying!” avoid jumping up or shouting “What!?”

• For example, say that the interviewee says, “I became interested in city planning after a friend was killed in a poorly-designed intersection.” It would be inappropriate to say, “So what?” or “That sucks.” Instead, say something like, “I’m sorry to hear that; it’s a real tragedy.”

• This would also be a good time to scroll through the audio or video file that you recorded and make sure that it’s all clear and audible.

Expert Q&A

• Always speak clearly when you ask questions and speak to the interviewee, especially if you’re recording with a tape recorder. Ask the interviewee to do the same. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Give your interviewee enough time to answer each question. Don’t rush them on to answer another question while they’re still thinking of an answer for the first one. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Always interview your subjects face-to-face when it’s possible. If a face-to-face interview is impractical, a telephone interview is a decent substitute. Avoid conducting interviews over email except as a last resort. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.csus.edu/indiv/o/obriene/art116/readings/guide%20for%20conducting%20interviews.pdf
• ↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/interviewing/research-interview
• ↑ https://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/interviews.htm
• ↑ https://aultman.libguides.com/c.php?g=974169&p=7042440
• ↑ https://guides.lib.vt.edu/researchmethods/interviews
• ↑ https://uk.indeed.com/career-advice/interviewing/research-interview

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A Step-by-Step Guide for a Successful Qualitative Interview

• Resources , Blog

Key Takeaways: 

• Qualitative interviews provide in-depth insights from individual respondents, and are useful when follow-up or clarification is needed
• Clarity of objectives and audience is essential to gathering actionable insights from your qualitative research project
• Build a strong researcher-respondent relationship to elicit honest and engaged responses

Qualitative research uses in-depth interviews to gain rich non-numerical data from individuals. This data helps researchers understand concepts, opinions, and personal experiences. Interviews are an excellent method to discover the “why” behind people’s preferences or behaviors, but they require a thoughtful approach.

Continue reading as we explore use cases and define the steps to follow for a successful qualitative interview.

In this Article:

When Should I Use Qualitative Interviews? Conducting a Successful Qualitative Interview – Step by Step Guide

1. Determine Your Objective 2. Understand Your Audience 3. Design Appropriate Questions 4. Organize and Prepare for the Interview 5. Conduct the Interview 6. Transcribe and Analyze Responses 7. Learn, Adapt, and Evolve Your Interviews

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When Should I Use Qualitative Interviews?

Qualitative research is used to obtain context and describe underlying factors. It describes “how” and “why.”

Perhaps a business wants to understand what product features are most or least important to each target segment. They could ask:

“Between product A and product B, how would the features in each product influence your buying decision?”

This creates an opportunity for the respondent to reveal what features are personally important and unimportant for them. In an interview setting, researchers can go deeper into why these features are important, and how important each feature is in comparison to others.

Qualitative interviews are best when:

• You need in-depth insights
• You want answers to a range of follow-up questions, building on prior responses
• Your questions require significant explanation and reasoning
• You explore complex and confusing topics with respondents
• You want to understand what drives consumer decisions
• You want to hear the unique voice of your audience first-hand

Conducting a Successful Qualitative Interview – Step by Step Guide

Knowing when to use a qualitative interview is a great first step, but now you need to understand how best to conduct one. Our experts share a range of steps to follow as you embark on a qualitative interview and best practices for each.

1. Determine Your Objective

What are you trying to understand? The answer to this is critical in guiding your qualitative research process.

Some common examples:

• Understand consumer perceptions of products, services, or brand
• Reveal strengths and weaknesses in product or service portfolios
• Understand consumer buying behaviors
• Test the usability of a website or digital service
• Emotional reactions to packaging design and marketing assets

2. Understand Your Audience

Who is your target audience for this project? Have a clear understanding of who you need to hear from to meet your research objective.

Here are some examples of objectives, and the sample that is most suited to each:

• If you want to understand how existing customers perceive the quality of your products, you need a sample of existing customers.
• If you want to understand why consumers choose competitor products over yours, you need a sample of non-customers who buy products from your primary competitor.
• If you want to understand how the average person perceives your brand, you need a combination of existing customers, non-customers with awareness of your brand, and unaware non-customers.

3. Design Appropriate Questions

The questions you ask must align with the objectives of your research without being leading or introducing bias.

Here are some best practices when designing research questions:

• Keep questions open-ended. This increases the depth of insight obtained.
• Follow a structure. For instance, a tree diagram where every question has pre-determined follow-up questions based on anticipated answers. A planned structure increases the quality and validity of responses and reduces distractions.
• Design questions that simplify data collection and analysis. Format the responses collected to be compatible with your tools during data ingestion.
• Keep it simple. Focus on clarity when designing research questions to improve respondent understanding and engagement.

4. Organize and Prepare for the Interview

Relationships are essential to the interview process. Preparation beforehand helps build the respondent-researcher relationship. This relationship creates trust and elicits more honest and in-depth answers from participants. Here are some ways to prepare for an interview:

• Give respondents as much information as possible—such as question lists and question intent. Put this into an interview handbook to improve engagement and effectiveness.
• Conduct the interview in a suitable environment with minimal distractions and stressors.
• Have the necessary materials to record information.
• Interview yourself to identify and fix problems before you start interviewing others.

5. Conduct the Interview

With a structure in place, researchers have a clear plan of action throughout the interview.

During the interview, stay attuned to emotional reactions and body language with the following techniques:

• Create a relaxed atmosphere. Ask respondents about their lives, work, and passions to establish a connection.
• Give respondents your full attention. An engaged researcher encourages an engaged respondent. Plus, they gave up their personal time to help you out.
• Read body language. Is the respondent crossing their arms, looking down to the floor, or not making eye contact? These reactions may signal discomfort or anxiety, offering an opportunity to build rapport.
• Follow the questions but be flexible when listening. Deviations from the script may lead to unexpected and valuable insights.

6. Transcribe and Analyze Responses

Convert recorded audio responses to text. Decide early which tool or solution will work best for your needs.

Similarly, researchers may need to annotate video responses to describe behaviors and surrounding context before analysis; e.g., this person gritted their teeth during that response, that person’s vocal tone was anxious and uncertain, etc.

Transcribe responses into a format ready for analysis upon ingestion into your business intelligence tools.

7. Learn, Adapt, and Evolve Your Interviews

Each interview is an opportunity to improve the process. Take time after a project to evaluate how it went.

What did you learn about the process? Was it easy or confusing? Was the respondent comfortable or on edge? Did you get the responses you needed?

Scrutinize your interview approach. Look for ways to improve and innovate the process for better outcomes next time.

Now, you should have a good idea of when to use and how to approach qualitative interviews.

Sago has decades of experience across both quantitative and qualitative research. Our experts find interviews ideal for in-depth qualitative insights that guide new product and service development or improve market positioning for existing offerings. We offer both in-person facilities and online spaces to conduct qualitative interviews.

If you still have questions, get in touch with Sago for help with your next research project.

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Conducting Research Interviews

The interviewer mindset, quick tips for preparing, developing questions.

• Conducting the Interview
• Applying & Using the Interview

While the research interview is a one-on-one interaction, it's not a normal conversation. As the interviewer, it's expected that you:

• Are knowledgeable on the topic of the interview (this may require some background research)
• Are able to structure and guide the interview to keep it relevant but flexible
• Are able to remember and interpret the information gained in the interview
• Are sensitive to the interviewee's position and their rights
• Do preliminary research on the topic and the interviewee so that you enter the interview with an understanding of what will be discussed.
• Reflect on your goals. What should the interview accomplish? What is important to have recorded in the interview, and why is it important? How can you make the process easy for the interviewee?
• Create a list of topics and questions to explore during the interview. This should not be a strict checklist or a script; rather, it should function as a guide to ensure that you cover all of the content and that the interview stays focused.
• Create an open line of dialog with your interviewee before the interview so that you are comfortable with each other. This can involve going over the process, offering to answer any of their questions, verifying your time and place for the interview, etc.
• Choose and thoroughly familiarize yourself with your recording equipment to minimize any potential issues that may arise during the actual interview.
• Choose an interview space that is relaxed, comfortable, and quiet. You are having a conversation with your interviewee, not an interrogation.
• If you have never interviewed before, feel free to practice for the interview with friends, family, or peers. This will make sure you are prepared for the real thing.

Characteristics of good interview questions

• Open-ended and elicit a long response from the interviewee (can't be answered yes/no or with one word)
• Focus on the experience of the interviewee
• Don't lead the interviewee toward a particular response
• Address a single issue/point (i.e. don't ask multi-part questions)

Writing interview questions

Harvard's Department of Sociology provides some steps to help guide you in the process of writing interview questions (see the link to the guide below).

• Write down the larger research questions of the study. Outline the broad areas of knowledge that are relevant to answering these questions.
• Develop questions within each of these major areas, shaping them to fit particular kinds of respondents. The goal here is to tap into their experiences and expertise.
• Adjust the language of the interview according to the respondent (child, professional, etc.).
• Take care to word questions so that respondents are motivated to answer as completely and honestly as possible.
• Ask “how” questions rather than “why” questions to get stories of process rather than acceptable “accounts” of behavior. “How did you come to join this group . . .?”
• Develop probes that will elicit more detailed and elaborate responses to key questions. The more detail, the better!
• Begin the interview with a “warm-up” question—something that the respondent can answer easily and at some length (though not too long). It doesn’t have to pertain directly to what you are trying to find out (although it might), but this initial rapport-building will put you more at ease with one another and thus will make the rest of the interview flow more smoothly.
• Think about the logical flow of the interview. What topics should come first? What follows more or less “naturally”? This may take some adjustment after several interviews.
• Difficult or potentially embarrassing questions should be asked toward the end of the interview, when rapport has been established.
• The last question should provide some closure for the interview, and leave the respondent feeling empowered, listened to, or otherwise glad that they talked to you.
• Strategies for Qualitative Interviews This handy guide from Harvard's Department of Sociology provides guidance on getting into the interviewer mindset as well as developing and writing interview questions.

Depending on the nature of your assignment or research, you may or may not need to record and transcribe the interview. Review the pros and cons to determine whether recording and transcribing will be worthwhile for you.

• Helps you to recall more details of the interview
• Helps you to thoroughly examine the interview
• It allows other researchers to interpret and reuse the data in new ways
• May be off-putting to interviewees or make them feel pressured
• Transcribing is a time-consuming process; even using a transcription software requires a detailed review of the text

"Strategies for Qualitative Interviews" (n.d.) Harvard. See link above..

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How to Conduct Interviews in Qualitative Research: Interview Guidelines for Qualitative Research

Dec 31, 2019

Market Research

Rev › Blog › Market Research › How to Conduct Interviews in Qualitative Research: Interview Guidelines for Qualitative Research

Qualitative research interviews are depth interviews. They elicit detailed feedback from your leads and customers. Unstructured interviews reveal why people react in a certain way or make certain decisions. According to The Hartford , qualitative research provides an anecdotal look into your business. That provides an important form of data.

Why Your Business Should Use a Qualitative Interview Process

Qualitative research helps business owners:

• Identify customer needs
• Clarify marketing messages
• Generate ideas for improvements of a product
• Decide to extend a line or brand
• Gain perspective on how a product fits into a customer’s lifestyle

How Is Conducting Qualitative Research & Quantitative Research Different?

Quantitative research concerns measurable quantities and numbers. It involves close-ended questions. Answer possibilities include yes or no, true or false, or various set choices. Qualitative research is descriptive and concerned with understanding behavior. It invites people to tell their stories in their own words.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research helps researchers understand the social reality of individuals, groups and cultures. Qualitative research for businesses involves understanding consumer behavior. It can involve ethnographic techniques, including participant observation and field research. It also includes phenomenology, understanding life experiences using written or recorded narratives. Qualitative research also includes in-depth interviews.

What Is a Qualitative Interview?

A qualitative interview is a more personal form of research compared to questionnaires. The interviewer can probe or ask follow-up research questions of the interview participant. In some cases, subjects may start to interview the interviewer. This fosters deep discussion of the interview topic.

Why Are Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research Effective?

Qualitative research interviews help you explain, understand and explore opinions, behavior and experiences. Qualitative research can provide insights into a phenomenon. Qualitative research discoveries can be further researched and analyzed to influence business decisions.

How Are Interviews in Qualitative Research Formatted?

Qualitative research interviews may take place one-on-one or in focus groups. Learn how to run a successful focus group . Interviews span around 30 to 90 minutes. The interview can take place in person, over the phone or through video chat. The interviewer collects information about opinions, behavior, attitudes, feelings, preferences and knowledge.

How to Conduct Interviews in Qualitative Research

1. determine your goal., 2. target people to interview., 3. design interview questions., 4. prep the interview., 5. conduct the interview., 6. transcribe and analyze the interview., 7. optimize and evolve your interview guide., the first step in qualitative research: determine your goal.

Determine what you want to study:

• A current or potential product, service or brand positioning
• Strengths and weaknesses in products
• Purchasing decisions
• Reactions to advertising or marketing campaigns
• Usability of a website or other interactive services
• Perceptions about the company, brand or product
• Reactions to packaging and design

How Can You Decide a Goal for a Qualitative Interview?

Have your business team ask the following questions: 

• What information do you want to get?
• Why do you want to pursue in-depth information about this research topic?
• Why is a qualitative interview process the best solution for this research?
• How will you use qualitative data to improve your business? 

How to Determine the Right Interview Participants

When looking for people to talk to for a qualitative interview, consider your goal. If you want to expand a product line, interview existing customers about their needs. If you’re researching marketing, ask new customers how they found your business. Match interview subjects with the goal of the interview.

How to Design Interview Questions for Qualitative Research

When you’re creating an interview guide, it’s a good idea to: 

• Plan structured interviews with open ended questions.
• Avoid leading questions.
• Create interview questions that are clear and easy to understand.
• Make research questions focused but flexible.
• Design questions that align with data collection and data analysis goals.

Tips for Preparing a Qualitative Research Interview

Preparation improves interview effectiveness. Tips to prepare include:

• Create an interview guide. The guide should include questions, question intent and answer-based paths to take.
• Choose a setting where the subject feels comfortable.
• Build rapport with interview participants.
• Have a reliable way to record the interview.
• Rehearse the interview first.

Environmental Concerns for Qualitative Interviews

The setting of a qualitative interview also affects the quality of the interview. Consider the needs of the subject. For example, if you’re interviewing a teenager, a formal boardroom may not be the best setting. Some cultures may not value direct eye contact. An interview that’s non-face-to-face may be better.

How to Make Qualitative Interview Subjects Comfortable

For long interviews, offer water and breaks to participants. Be polite and respectful when interacting with interview subjects. Let interview participants know the purpose of the research. Explain exactly how you’ll use their answers. Address terms of confidentiality if necessary. Thank participants after the interview and let them know what to expect next.

What Are Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research techniques include:

• Start interviews with “get-to-know-you” questions to put the interview participant at ease.
• Pay attention.
• Use active listening techniques.
• Watch for body language cues.
• Pivot questions as needed.
• Acknowledge emotions.
• Avoid interrogation.
• Ending interviews, ask subjects if they have anything to add.

What Is Active Listening in Interviews in Qualitative Research?

Active listening techniques include: 

• Make eye contact.
• Lean in and use body language to show you’re listening.
• Don’t get distracted by devices.
• Use verbal affirmation.
• Paraphrase answers for reflection.
• Reference earlier answers.
• Avoid interrupting.
• Embrace pauses.
• Ask for clarification.
• Pay attention in the moment.

Tips for Transcribing a Qualitative Interview

It’s best to transcribe and analyze a qualitative research interview right away. This helps you optimize future interviews. Transcribe the interview word for word. Note non-verbal interactions in your transcription. Interactions like pauses and laughter can provide deeper insights into responses.

How to Analyze a Qualitative Interview

Analyze your qualitative research data early. That way, you can identify emerging themes to shape future interviews. Consider adding these to each interview report:

• The goal of the interview
• Details about the interview participant
• Questions asked, summarized responses and key findings
• Recommendations

Relate the analysis to the goal of the qualitative research interview.

Optimize the Interview Guide for Qualitative Research

Each interview can help you improve the efficiency and effectiveness of future ones. Adjust your interview guide based on insights from each previous interview. Keep all versions of your transcriptions and interview guides with notes on them. You can reference these for future qualitative research.

Get Reliable Transcription Services for Qualitative Research Interviews

As mentioned, you should transcribe qualitative research interviews as soon as possible. There are several reasons for this.

• You can gain insights that help you shape your interview guide. You might identify questions to add or questions to clarify.
• Your interview participants may not be appropriate for this type of qualitative research. Finding more targeted interview subjects may be better.
• Answers may evolve the qualitative research goal and/or data analysis.

At Rev, we understand the need for fast transcription for accurate market research. We provide a turnaround time of as few as 12 hours, no matter how big your project is. We guarantee 99%+ accuracy. Learn about Rev’s market research transcription . We can help make your qualitative research project a success.

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How to Start Research Interviews

Research interviews serve as invaluable tools for collecting in-depth insights, perspectives, and narratives from participants. As a researcher, the success of your interview largely hinges on the initial moments—the way you establish rapport, set the tone, and make participants feel comfortable. In this post, we consider effective strategies on how to start a research interview, ensuring a positive and productive engagement from the outset.

1. Build Rapport:

Why it matters:.

Building rapport establishes a foundation of trust and comfort, creating a conducive environment for open and honest communication.

How to do it:

• Begin with a warm and friendly greeting.
• Introduce yourself, providing a brief overview of your role and the purpose of the interview.
• Express gratitude for their participation, emphasizing the importance of their insights.

2. Explain the Purpose:

Clarifying the purpose of the interview helps participants understand the context and contributes to a more focused and relevant conversation.

• Clearly articulate the objectives of the research.
• Explain how their input is valuable and will contribute to the study.
• Highlight the broader impact of the research, emphasizing its relevance.

3. Establish Ground Rules:

Setting clear ground rules creates a sense of structure and ensures that both you and the participant are on the same page regarding expectations.

• Discuss the anticipated duration of the interview.
• Assure participants of confidentiality and explain how their responses will be anonymized.
• Encourage them to ask questions or seek clarification at any point.

4. Provide an Overview:

Giving participants an overview of the interview structure helps them understand what to expect and alleviates any potential anxiety.

• Outline the main topics or themes you will cover during the interview.
• Share an approximate timeline for each section to give a sense of pacing.
• Reiterate that there are no right or wrong answers; you are interested in their perspectives.

5. Ask Icebreaker Questions:

Icebreaker questions serve to ease participants into the conversation, helping them feel more at ease and encouraging a natural flow of dialogue.

• Start with light and non-intrusive questions.
• Inquire about their background, experiences, or interests before delving into more specific topics.
• Use these questions to establish a conversational tone.

6. Active Listening and Nonverbal Cues:

Demonstrating active listening and positive nonverbal cues fosters a sense of connection and attentiveness, enhancing the quality of the interaction.

• Maintain eye contact without being overly intense.
• Nod or provide affirmative gestures to show understanding.
• Avoid interrupting and allow pauses for participants to express themselves.

7. Adapt to the Participant’s Style:

Adapting to the participant’s communication style creates a more comfortable and inclusive environment, promoting better engagement.

• Pay attention to the participant’s tone, pace, and level of formality.
• Mirror their communication style within appropriate bounds.
• Be flexible in your approach based on their preferences.

8. Clarify and Confirm Understanding:

Ensuring mutual understanding prevents misunderstandings and allows participants to feel heard and valued.

• Periodically summarize key points to confirm understanding.
• Encourage participants to elaborate or clarify if needed.
• Use reflective statements to demonstrate that you are actively processing their responses.

Starting a research interview is not just a logistical step but a crucial aspect of the entire research process. By incorporating these strategies on how to start a research interview, you can create an environment where participants feel respected, understood, and motivated to share their perspectives. Remember that the opening moments set the tone for the entire interview, influencing the depth and authenticity of the insights you gather. Approach the initiation of a research interview with sensitivity, empathy, and a genuine commitment to understanding the unique experiences and perspectives of your participants.

Recommended reading

King, N.. Horrocks, C. & Brooks, J. (2018) Interviews in Qualitative Research: Sage Publishing (Click to view on Amazon #Ad)

This dynamic user-focused book will help you to get the data you want from your interviews. It provides practical guidance regarding technique, gives top-tips from real world case studies and shares achievable checklists and interview plans.

Whether you are doing interviews in your own research or just using other researchers’ data, this book will tell you everything you need to know about designing, planning, conducting and analyzing quality interviews. 

Glenn Stevens

Glenn is an academic writing and research specialist with 15 years experience writing, editing, PhD and Masters supervision and journal editing. He is also a qualified English teacher. His prior career was in magazine publishing. He is now editor of this blog. Contact Glenn

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General guidelines for conducting research interviews.

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, Authenticity Consulting, LLC . Adapted from the Field Guide to Consulting and Organizational Development .

Sections of This Topic Include

Introduction, preparation for interview, types of interviews, types of topics in questions, sequence of questions, wording of questions.

• Carrying Out Interview

Immediately After Interview

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Learn More in the Library’s Blogs Related to Doing Research Interviews

In addition to the articles on this current page, see the following blogs which have posts related to Doing Research Interviews. Scan down the blog’s page to see various posts. Also see the section “Recent Blog Posts” in the sidebar of the blog or click on “next” near the bottom of a post in the blog.

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Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews. This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.

• Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their own places of work or homes.
• Explain the purpose of the interview.
• Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so. See getting informed consent.
• Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they’re to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview.
• Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
• Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
• Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.
• Don’t count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the interview or bring along someone to take notes.
• Informal, conversational interview – no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview, the interviewer “goes with the flow”.
• General interview guide approach – the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee.
• Standardized, open-ended interview – here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don’t select “yes” or “no” or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.
• Closed, fixed-response interview – where all interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about:

• Behaviors – about what a person has done or is doing
• Opinions/values – about what a person thinks about a topic
• Feelings – note that respondents sometimes respond with “I think …” so be careful to note that you’re looking for feelings
• Knowledge – to get facts about a topic
• Sensory – about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled
• Background/demographics – standard background questions, such as age, education, etc.

Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.

• Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.
• Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the interview before warming up to more personal matters.
• Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.
• Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It’s usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future.
• The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.
• Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms when answering questions.
• Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
• Questions should be asked one at a time.
• Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the program or the respondents’ culture.
• Be careful asking “why” questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect relationship that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future questions.

Conducting Interview

• Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
• Ask one question at a time.
• Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don’t show strong emotional reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if “you’ve heard it all before.”
• Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, “uh huh”, etc.
• Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it may appear as if you’re surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to future questions.
• Provide transition between major topics , e.g., “we’ve been talking about (some topic) and now I’d like to move on to (another topic).”
• Don’t lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the interviewer.
• Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.
• Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are numbered, fill out any notes that don’t make senses, etc.
• Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?
• Qualitative interviewing techniques
• How to Prepare for Competency-Based Interviewing

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20 Common Researcher Interview Questions and Answers

Common Researcher interview questions, how to answer them, and sample answers from a certified career coach.

You’ve been invited to interview for a research position—congratulations! You know you have the skills and experience, but now it’s time to prove it.

The key to success? Being prepared. To help make sure you shine in your upcoming interview, we’ve compiled some of the most common questions asked during research interviews. Read on, get familiar with them, and practice your answers so you can ace that job interview like a pro.

• What research methods do you use to collect data?
• How do you ensure the accuracy and validity of your research results?
• Describe a time when you had to analyze complex data sets and draw meaningful conclusions from them.
• Explain how you would go about designing an experiment or survey to answer a specific research question.
• Are you familiar with any statistical software programs? If so, which ones?
• What strategies do you use to stay organized while conducting research?
• How do you handle ethical considerations when conducting research?
• Have you ever encountered a situation where you had to adjust your research methodology due to unexpected circumstances?
• Describe a time when you had to present your research findings in a clear and concise manner.
• Do you have experience working with large datasets?
• What challenges have you faced when collecting primary data for a research project?
• How do you approach writing up a research paper or report?
• What techniques do you use to identify potential sources of bias in your research?
• How do you evaluate the quality of secondary sources used in your research?
• What strategies do you use to keep track of changes in the field of research you are studying?
• How do you decide which research questions to pursue?
• What is your experience with peer review processes?
• How do you manage competing demands on your time when conducting research?
• What strategies do you use to ensure that your research remains relevant and up-to-date?
• How do you ensure that your research meets the highest standards of academic integrity?

1. What research methods do you use to collect data?

Research methods are the core of any researcher’s job. You’ll need to be familiar with a variety of different methods, such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and experiments, and be able to explain how you use each one in your work. This will help the interviewer understand your process and how you can contribute to their organization.

How to Answer:

You should be prepared to explain the research methods you have used in your past work. Talk about how you use surveys, interviews, focus groups, and experiments to collect data, as well as any other methods you may have experience with. If you’re just starting out, then talk through the steps you would take to select a method for each project. You can also mention any specialized methods or software that you are familiar with.

Example: “I use a variety of research methods to collect data, depending on the project. I often use surveys and interviews as primary sources of information, but I also have experience with focus groups, experiments, and software tools like Qualtrics for collecting quantitative data. I’m familiar with specialized methods such as content analysis and ethnography when appropriate. My goal is always to select the method that will provide the most accurate and reliable data for each project.”

2. How do you ensure the accuracy and validity of your research results?

Research requires a level of precision that goes beyond the normal workplace. Good researchers are able to identify what data is relevant and how to collect it in order to make reliable conclusions. Interviewers will want to know that you have the skills and knowledge to conduct research that is both accurate and valid. They’ll also want to know if you use any specific methods or tools to ensure accuracy and validity.

You should be prepared to explain what methods you use to ensure accuracy and validity of your research. This could include double-checking sources, using multiple data points, or triangulating information from different sources to verify results. You can also mention any specific tools or techniques you use, such as conducting surveys or interviews with experts in the field. Be sure to emphasize how important it is for you to make sure that your research is accurate and valid before drawing conclusions.

Example: “When I was working on a research project for ABC Corporation, I had to analyze the data from three different sources. My approach was to use statistical analysis techniques and software tools to cross-reference the data sets and identify any potential discrepancies or outliers. After analyzing the results, I identified a number of key trends that allowed us to draw meaningful conclusions about the company’s operations. The insights gained from this research ultimately led to improvements in the organization’s processes, resulting in increased efficiency and productivity.”

3. Describe a time when you had to analyze complex data sets and draw meaningful conclusions from them.

Research projects often involve a lot of data analysis and interpretation. Knowing how to take large amounts of data and make it into something meaningful is a valuable skill for any researcher. This question is a way for the interviewer to gauge your ability to work with data and draw meaningful conclusions from it.

You should be prepared to provide a specific example of when you had to analyze complex data sets and draw meaningful conclusions from them. Talk about the project, your approach to analyzing the data, and any insights or conclusions that you drew from it. Be sure to emphasize the impact of your findings on the project or organization as well.

Example: “I recently worked on a project for my previous employer in which I had to analyze a large and complex data set. My approach was to break down the data into smaller, more manageable chunks and then look for patterns or correlations between different variables. After doing this, I was able to identify a few key trends that were relevant to the project goals. This allowed us to make better decisions about how to allocate resources and focus our efforts, resulting in a successful outcome.”

4. Explain how you would go about designing an experiment or survey to answer a specific research question.

This question is designed to determine if you have the skills necessary to design and implement valid research experiments. The interviewer wants to know if you understand the fundamentals of research design, such as how to select a sample, how to develop a hypothesis, and how to determine the validity of a study. They also want to know if you can explain the process in a clear and concise manner.

Start by explaining the steps you would take to design an experiment or survey. You should include the following: defining the research question, selecting a sample, developing a hypothesis, creating a data collection plan, and determining how to analyze the results. Be sure to explain any specific techniques you might use in each step, such as random sampling or stratified sampling for your sample selection process. Finally, emphasize the importance of validating the results to ensure they are accurate and reliable.

Example: “When designing an experiment or survey, the first step is to define the research question. Once the research question has been identified, I would then select a sample that is representative of the population being studied. I would also develop a hypothesis based on my understanding of the research question and the available data. After that, I would create a data collection plan that outlines how the data will be collected, such as using surveys, interviews, or focus groups. Finally, I would determine the best method for analyzing the results in order to draw valid conclusions from the research. In all cases, it’s important to validate the results to ensure they are accurate and reliable.”

5. Are you familiar with any statistical software programs? If so, which ones?

Researchers often have to analyze data and present it in a meaningful way. This requires familiarity with statistical software programs like SPSS, SAS, or R. Knowing how to use these programs is a critical part of being a successful researcher, so this question is meant to gauge your level of expertise.

If you are familiar with any of the programs mentioned above, be sure to mention that and explain how you have used them in past research projects. If you are not familiar with these programs, it is still important to emphasize your ability to learn new software quickly. Explain how you approach learning new technologies and provide examples of times when you have successfully done so in the past.

Example: “I have used SPSS and SAS in my previous research projects. I am also comfortable with learning new statistical software programs, as I have done so on multiple occasions in the past. For example, when starting a new project at my last job, I was asked to learn R quickly in order to analyze data. Within two weeks, I had become proficient enough to use it for all of our research needs.”

6. What strategies do you use to stay organized while conducting research?

Research can be a long and complex process, with lots of data to sift through, organize, and analyze. It’s important to show the interviewer that you have a system in place to stay organized throughout the research process, from the initial research plan to the final report. This will demonstrate that you can effectively manage your time and resources, as well as prioritize tasks and remain focused on the task at hand.

You can answer this question by talking about the strategies you use to stay organized while conducting research. You could mention that you create detailed research plans, break down large tasks into smaller ones, and prioritize tasks based on importance and deadlines. Additionally, you could talk about how you utilize organizational tools such as spreadsheets and databases to store data, track progress, and easily access information when needed. Finally, you might also discuss how you take notes during your research process in order to keep track of important ideas or findings.

Example: “I use a variety of strategies to stay organized while conducting research. I always start by creating a detailed research plan that outlines the scope of my work and any deadlines associated with it. From there, I break down large tasks into smaller ones in order to tackle them more efficiently. Additionally, I prioritize tasks based on importance and deadlines in order to remain focused on the task at hand. To help store data, track progress, and access information quickly, I also utilize organizational tools such as spreadsheets and databases. Finally, I take notes during my research process in order to keep track of important ideas or findings.”

7. How do you handle ethical considerations when conducting research?

Research often involves collecting personal data, and it’s important that researchers understand how to approach these situations with respect and integrity. Interviewers want to know that you are aware of ethical considerations and that you are capable of adhering to them. This question is likely to be asked to all potential researchers, as it is an important part of the job.

Talk about the ethical considerations you take into account when conducting research. These can include obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity of data, respecting privacy laws, protecting vulnerable populations, and considering potential biases that may arise in your research. You should also mention any processes or protocols you have implemented to ensure ethical compliance with research projects. Finally, emphasize how important it is for researchers to adhere to ethical standards and how seriously you take them.

Example: “I understand the importance of adhering to ethical standards when conducting research, and I take this responsibility very seriously. In my current position as a researcher at ABC University, I follow a strict protocol for obtaining informed consent from participants and ensuring that data is kept confidential and anonymous. I also make sure to consider any potential biases in our research before collecting data and am familiar with applicable privacy laws. Lastly, I always strive to protect vulnerable populations, such as children or those with disabilities, when conducting research.”

8. Have you ever encountered a situation where you had to adjust your research methodology due to unexpected circumstances?

Research is a dynamic process and researchers must be prepared to adjust their methods as needed. This question is designed to assess the flexibility of potential candidates and their ability to think on their feet. It also provides insight into how well a candidate understands the research process, including how to identify and address potential problems.

To answer this question, provide an example of a situation where you had to adjust your research methodology due to unexpected circumstances. Explain how you identified the problem and how you adjusted your methods in order to successfully complete the project. Be sure to emphasize any creative solutions you implemented and the positive outcome that resulted from your adjustment.

Example: “I recently encountered a situation where I had to adjust my research methodology due to unexpected circumstances. I was conducting a survey to analyze consumer behavior in relation to a new product launch. After collecting the first round of data, I noticed a discrepancy in the results that could not be explained. After further investigation, I realized that the sample size I was using was not large enough to accurately capture the data. I quickly adjusted my methodology by increasing the sample size and collecting more data, which ultimately allowed me to identify the discrepancy and provide an accurate analysis of consumer behavior.”

9. Describe a time when you had to present your research findings in a clear and concise manner.

Researchers often have to communicate their findings to colleagues, stakeholders, and the public. The ability to communicate complex research findings in an understandable way is a key skill for someone in this role. This question allows the interviewer to gauge your ability to explain complex concepts in a clear and concise manner.

You should come prepared with an example of a time when you had to present your research findings. Talk about the project, what the goal was, and how you went about presenting it. If possible, provide specific details such as the type of presentation (oral, written, etc.), who you presented to, and the feedback you received. You should also explain the strategies that you used to make sure that the audience understood your message. This could include using visual aids, breaking down complex concepts into simpler terms, or providing examples to illustrate your points.

Example: “My most recent research project focused on the long-term effects of climate change on agricultural production. I knew that it was important to make sure that the findings were presented in a way that was easy to understand and digest. I created a PowerPoint presentation that included visuals and graphs to illustrate my points, as well as a written report that provided a detailed breakdown of the findings. I then presented my findings to a group of stakeholders and received positive feedback. They appreciated my ability to take complex concepts and explain them in a way that was easy to understand.”

10. Do you have experience working with large datasets?

Many research roles require the ability to work with large datasets and analyze the information within them. This question helps employers understand how comfortable you are with such tasks, and it also serves as a way to gauge your technical skills. To answer this question, talk about how you’ve used various tools and techniques to analyze data and how you’ve been able to draw meaningful insights from it.

Start by talking about the types of datasets you’ve worked with, such as structured or unstructured data, and explain how you’ve gone about analyzing them. Then, provide a few examples of projects you’ve completed that involved working with large datasets. Finally, discuss any tools or techniques you’ve used to work with the data, such as statistical software, data visualization tools, machine learning algorithms, etc. Be sure to emphasize your ability to draw meaningful insights from the data and how those insights have helped inform decisions.

Example: “I have experience working with large datasets in both structured and unstructured formats. I have utilized various tools and techniques to analyze the data, such as statistical software and data visualization tools. I’ve also employed machine learning algorithms to uncover patterns and trends from the data. For example, in my most recent project I utilized a variety of data sources to identify potential new markets for our company. Through analyzing the data, I was able to identify key demographic, geographic, and psychographic trends that we could use to target our new customers. This analysis provided valuable insights that informed our marketing strategy and ultimately led to increased sales.”

11. What challenges have you faced when collecting primary data for a research project?

Research often involves gathering primary data from sources such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and observations. It’s important to determine whether the candidate has the skills necessary to design and implement a research project in order to successfully collect data. This question helps the interviewer understand the candidate’s ability to handle the logistics and challenges of primary data collection.

When answering this question, it’s important to provide specific examples of challenges you have faced and how you overcame them. For example, you could talk about the challenge of finding participants for a survey or focus group, or the difficulty in scheduling interviews with busy professionals. You can also discuss any logistical issues that arose during data collection, such as having unreliable equipment or dealing with uncooperative participants. Be sure to emphasize your problem-solving skills and ability to think on your feet when facing unexpected obstacles.

Example: “I’ve encountered a few challenges when gathering primary data for research projects. For example, when I was working on a survey project for a university, it took me several weeks to find participants willing to answer the survey. I had to be creative in my approach and reach out to different groups, such as student organizations, to recruit participants. I also encountered a few logistical issues, such as having unreliable equipment or dealing with uncooperative participants. I was able to quickly come up with solutions to these issues, such as having backup equipment and developing strategies to engage the participants. Overall, I was able to successfully gather the data I needed and produce valuable research findings.”

12. How do you approach writing up a research paper or report?

Research is a process that requires both creativity and structure. As a researcher, you must be able to synthesize information from a variety of sources, develop strong arguments, and communicate those arguments clearly and concisely in written form. Being able to articulate your approach to researching and writing up a paper will demonstrate your ability to think critically and logically.

Your answer should include the steps you take when writing up a research paper or report. This could include outlining your topic, researching relevant sources, organizing and synthesizing data, developing an argument, drafting and revising the paper, and proofreading for accuracy. It is also important to emphasize how you use critical thinking skills to develop strong arguments and draw meaningful conclusions from your research. Finally, make sure to mention any specific techniques or strategies that you have used successfully in the past.

Example: “When writing up a research paper or report, I approach the task systematically. I begin by outlining my topic and any relevant research questions. I then conduct research to find relevant sources, both primary and secondary. I carefully review and analyze the information I find, and use it to develop my argument. After that, I draft and revise the paper, making sure to include evidence to support my points. Finally, I proofread for accuracy and clarity. Throughout the process, I strive to use critical thinking skills to ensure that my arguments are sound and my conclusions are meaningful.”

13. What techniques do you use to identify potential sources of bias in your research?

Researchers need to be able to identify potential sources of bias in their work, such as selection bias or confirmation bias, in order to ensure the accuracy of their data and the validity of their results. By asking this question, the interviewer is gauging your ability to identify potential sources of bias and how you handle them.

To answer this question, you should discuss the techniques you use to identify potential sources of bias in your research. This could include methods such as double-checking data for accuracy and completeness, using multiple sources of information, or conducting blind studies. Additionally, you can talk about how you handle any biases you may find, such as adjusting your research design or changing your methodology. Be sure to emphasize that accuracy and validity are important to you and that you take steps to ensure they remain a priority.

Example: “I understand the importance of accuracy and validity in research, so I always strive to identify and address any potential sources of bias. I use several techniques to identify bias, such as double-checking my data for accuracy and completeness, using multiple sources of information, and conducting blind studies. When I do identify a potential source of bias, I adjust my research design or change my methodology to address it. I also make sure to communicate any changes to my team and stakeholders to ensure that we’re all on the same page.”

14. How do you evaluate the quality of secondary sources used in your research?

One of the most important skills of a researcher is being able to evaluate the quality of sources used in research. This question allows the interviewer to get a better understanding of your research process and your ability to critically evaluate sources. It also allows them to gauge your level of experience in the field and your knowledge of the research landscape.

To answer this question, you should explain your process for evaluating secondary sources. You can talk about the criteria that you use to evaluate a source’s credibility such as its author or publisher, the date of publication, and any peer reviews that have been conducted on the source. Additionally, you can mention any methods you use to assess the accuracy of information in the source such as cross-referencing with other sources or conducting additional research on the topic. Finally, you should discuss how you use these evaluations to inform your own research.

Example: “When evaluating the quality of secondary sources I use in my research, I consider a few key factors. I always look at the author or publisher of the source, the date of publication, and any peer reviews that have been conducted. I also use a variety of methods to assess the accuracy of the information in the source, such as cross-referencing with other sources and conducting additional research. From there, I use my evaluations to inform my own research and determine how best to use the source. This helps me ensure that I’m using the most reliable and up-to-date sources in my research.”

15. What strategies do you use to keep track of changes in the field of research you are studying?

Research is an ever-evolving field and keeping up with changes in the field is essential to remain relevant and up to date. Interviewers want to know that you have the skills and strategies to stay on top of the latest research, trends, and developments in the field. They’ll be looking for evidence that you have the self-discipline and organizational skills to stay on top of your work and be able to provide timely, accurate research.

You should be prepared to discuss the strategies and tools you use to stay up-to-date on changes in your field. Talk about how you keep track of new research articles, publications, conferences, and other sources of information that are relevant to your work. You can also talk about how you use technology such as RSS feeds, social media, or email alerts to ensure that you’re aware of any news or updates related to your research. Additionally, mention any methods you have for organizing and cataloging the information you collect so it is easily accessible when needed.

Example: “To stay on top of changes in my field, I use a variety of strategies and tools. I subscribe to relevant RSS feeds and email alerts to ensure I’m aware of any new research articles or publications. I also use social media to follow industry leaders and experts in the field and get updates on their work. I also keep an organized library of research material that I have collected over the years. I use a combination of software tools and physical filing systems to keep track of all the information I need. This allows me to quickly access any information I need, when I need it.”

16. How do you decide which research questions to pursue?

Being a researcher requires the ability to prioritize and select the best questions to pursue in order to achieve the desired outcome. This question helps the interviewer get a sense of your process and how you approach problem solving. It also gives them an insight into your critical thinking skills, as well as your ability to analyze data and make meaningful conclusions.

The best way to answer this question is to provide a step-by-step approach of how you decide which research questions to pursue. Start by explaining the research process you go through, such as collecting data, analyzing it and forming hypotheses. Then explain how you prioritize certain questions based on their importance and relevance to the project at hand. Finally, discuss how you use your findings to make informed decisions about which questions are worth pursuing further.

Example: “When I’m deciding which research questions to pursue, I start by gathering all the available data related to the project. From there, I analyze the data to form hypotheses and then prioritize the questions based on their importance and relevance to the project. I also consider the impact each question could have on the overall outcome of the research. Once I have a list of the most important questions, I evaluate the data and use my findings to make informed decisions about which questions are worth pursuing further. Ultimately, my goal is to select the best questions that will yield the most meaningful results.”

17. What is your experience with peer review processes?

Peer review is a critical part of the research process. It requires that researchers review and critique each other’s work in order to ensure that the research is unbiased and credible. This question is a way for the interviewer to assess your knowledge of the research process and your ability to work with other researchers.

To answer this question, you should provide specific examples of your experience with peer review processes. Talk about how you have worked with other researchers to review and critique their work, as well as how you have incorporated feedback from peers into your own research. You can also discuss any challenges or successes you had during the process. Finally, emphasize your understanding of the importance of peer review in the research process and why it is necessary for producing high-quality results.

Example: “I have extensive experience with peer review processes, both as a reviewer and as an author. I have worked with other researchers to review their work and provide constructive feedback, as well as incorporating feedback from peers into my own research. I understand the importance of peer review in the research process and am committed to producing high-quality results. I have also had success in resolving disagreements between reviewers and authors when needed, and I have a strong track record of producing quality research that has been accepted for publication.”

18. How do you manage competing demands on your time when conducting research?

Research can be a demanding job, with a lot of deadlines, competing agendas, and complex data sets to analyze. The interviewer wants to make sure you can prioritize tasks, keep track of multiple projects, and adjust when needed. Your ability to manage competing demands on your time is a key indicator of how successful you will be at the job.

To answer this question, you should focus on how you prioritize tasks and manage deadlines. Talk about the strategies you use to stay organized, such as setting up a calendar or using task management tools. Also discuss any techniques you have for staying focused when there are multiple demands on your time. Finally, emphasize your ability to adjust your plans when needed, such as if an unexpected project comes in or a deadline needs to be moved up.

Example: “I have a few strategies for managing competing demands on my time when conducting research. I prioritize tasks by breaking them down into smaller, manageable chunks and then assigning deadlines to each one. I also use task management tools to keep track of what I need to do and stay organized. And I make sure to take regular breaks to stay focused and energized. When I need to adjust my plans due to unexpected events, I’m able to reassess and re-prioritize my tasks accordingly. I’m confident in my ability to manage competing demands on my time and stay organized when conducting research.”

19. What strategies do you use to ensure that your research remains relevant and up-to-date?

Research is a dynamic field, and the best researchers know that they need to stay informed of the latest developments and trends in order to remain relevant. This question allows your interviewer to assess your knowledge of the field and your commitment to keeping up with the latest research. It shows that you are aware of the need to stay ahead of the curve and that you have the skills to do so.

To answer this question, you should start by discussing the strategies that you use to stay informed. You can talk about how you read industry publications, attend conferences and seminars, or network with other researchers in your field. You should also mention any specific platforms or tools that you use to keep up-to-date on the latest research. Finally, you should explain why staying informed is important to you and how it helps you do better work.

Example: “I use a variety of strategies to ensure that my research remains relevant and up-to-date. I read industry publications, attend conferences and seminars, and network with other researchers to stay informed. I also use specific tools like Google Scholar and ResearchGate to keep track of new developments in my field. It’s important to me to stay ahead of the curve and make sure that my research is as current and relevant as possible. Doing so not only helps me do better work, but it also helps me to provide more value to my employer and contribute to the success of their projects.”

20. How do you ensure that your research meets the highest standards of academic integrity?

Research is the backbone of any organization, and it is crucial for a researcher to maintain the highest standards of academic integrity. Employers want to know that you understand the importance of being thorough and accurate, as well as ethical in your research. They may also want to know how you go about verifying the accuracy of your data and sources, and how you ensure that your research meets the standards expected in the field.

Start off by detailing the steps you take to ensure that your research meets academic integrity standards. For example, you can mention how you always double-check sources and data for accuracy and reliability, or how you use peer review processes to vet your work. Additionally, be sure to emphasize any specific techniques or methods you have used in the past to verify the validity of your findings. Finally, explain why it is important to you to maintain the highest level of academic integrity in your research.

Example: “I understand the importance of academic integrity and take it very seriously in my research. To ensure the highest standards of accuracy, I always double-check my sources and data, and use peer review processes to vet my work. Additionally, I frequently use replication studies to verify the validity of my findings. To me, it is essential to ensure that my research meets the highest standards of academic integrity, as it is the foundation of any successful research project.”

20 Interview Questions Every Data Center Engineer Must Be Able To Answer

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Preparing for a research interview

by Liisa Näpärä Jan 8, 2020

One can only really learn how to interview by conducting interviews, but thorough planning and reading interview guides does help. Here are some tips to keep in mind when you are preparing for your research interview.

Before the interview

Finding people to interview can sometimes be challenging, but usually people are happy to talk about their experiences and thoughts on different subjects. Make use of the people you know or contact an organisation or association related to the research topic. Social media is also a powerful way of finding people to interview, and newspapers and phone calls still work, too. The same questions do not work for everyone. The interviewees can be individuals or groups representing different backgrounds, age groups, professions, sexes and other social identifiers. The backgrounds of the interviewees, as well as the research questions, should steer the formulation of the interview questions. What are you asking, from whom and how?

Prepare the questions with care

Think about what it is that you want an answer to. Let others read your questions and conduct a test interview if you mean to use a relatively static structure from one interview to the next. When you allow an outsider, or your thesis supervisor, to read your questions, you can be sure that they are understandable. The language used in academia is often complicated for people not immersed in the research world. The test interview helps you arrange your questions into the right order and hone them to better match your research goals.

Start with the easy ones

The interview situation may make both the interviewer and the interviewee nervous, so you should start with short general background questions that lead towards the topic. Conducting an interview is about building trust and the interviewee should be given enough time to think about their answers and space should also be made for silence and off-topic discussion when the situation calls for it.

Remember that the time is a limited resource

An interview that lasts for over an hour is cumbersome to both the interviewer and the interviewee, so avoid an overly long interview script and instead conduct more than one interview or streamline your research question. Sometimes the discussion veers from place to place and useful information keeps pouring in, so setting enough time aside for the interview is important. Also note that the longer the interview is, the longer it will take to transcribe.

Talk about what you are doing and why

Keep the interviewee informed both before and after the interview. It is polite to ask the interviewee to consent to the recording of the interview and to send the research results to the interviewee once they are ready. This kind of co-operation leaves a good and ethical impression and reminds the interviewee of the trust that exists between interviewee and interviewer.

Prepare for surprires

Being late, having the phone ring during an interview and misplacing the interview materials are human errors that can and do happen to everyone. Be sure to record everything in at least two places and try to adhere to your own schedules. Schedules often stretch and reaching people can be difficult. Interviewees might not provide the kind of information you were expecting, so fine-tuning the interview questions might sometimes be in order.

Make sure your equipment works

Interviews are usually recorded, so you should learn how to use your recorder, smartphone or video camera before the actual interview situation. Bringing a pen and paper or a computer to the interview is also often a useful move. However, do not overemphasize the importance of your tools lest your interviewee becomes flustered and nervous as they focus on the technology instead of the interview.

Learn your interview script by heart

Listening to your interviewee is key. Some questions might receive answers before they are even asked, so it is important to pick out useful information from the interviewee’s answers. You can also go back to matters that were brought up earlier and ask clarifying questions if something is left unclear or if you want to know more about something.

Respect the interviewee

You can steer the interviewee in the right direction but you should not feed them answers. When the discussion veers off-topic, steering the interview back to the research questions is both allowed and justified. In qualitative research, the aim is to reach people’s experiences and thoughts regarding a certain topic, and they might not correspond with models found in textbooks. People understand and interpret questions in their own way, but keep in mind that every answer is potentially valuable to you. Also remind your interviewees of the value of their answers.

When planning an interview, think about how you will build trust, maintain your focus on what is important and keep your interviewees informed. Each interview is different, good luck.

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7 tips for preparing for an interview

Best practices on how to have a great interview experience

Not sure how to discuss your qualifications when preparing for an interview? Learn what to expect during an interview with these tips from ORISE recruiters.

• If your interview is in person, plan to arrive 10-15 minutes early to catch your breath and allow time to find parking, check in, and find the interview room. If you are not familiar with the area, use mapping services to find a good route and account for traffic. If your interview is virtual, find a quiet space and give yourself 15 minutes to setup your laptop and video meeting application to ensure there won’t be any interruptions before or during the interview. Make sure that you have checked your connection and you know how to contact the interviewer if there is an issue.
• Dress for success. If the interviewer provides a suggested dress code, be sure to follow it. Whether you’re chatting with representatives in person or on a video call, wearing an outfit that you are comfortable in and aligns with the role you are seeking can boost your confidence.   Feeling polished and prepared will help you leave a strong and positive impression on representatives. Plan your outfit in advance and consider having a backup prepared in case of unexpected stains, tears, or other wardrobe malfunctions. Need a few examples? Look online or speak with your career center at your academic institution for tips.
• If in person, bring hard copies of your resume/CV, samples of relevant projects, references, a notepad, and a pen. Keep your documents fresh and neat in a professional portfolio, folder, or carrying case. For virtual connections, be prepared to share during your interview or provide links to an online portfolio or website.
• Silence any electronic devices before the interview starts. If virtual, be sure that you have eliminated distractions as much as possible (e.g., roommates, pets, traffic, music, etc.).
• For in person interviews, maintain eye contact as you introduce yourself. Be polite and professional with everyone you interact with—you are in the interview as soon as you arrive at the facility. If virtual, make sure that your camera and sound are working, and your background is professional. Practice before the call to check how you will appear on screen and be sure you are looking into the camera (rather than away).   And remember your body language—be aware of what you are communicating through your posture and stance.
• Ask thoughtful questions when you are offered a chance. Prepare a few in advance and add questions using the information provided during the interview. Ask about things that aren’t available on the company’s website or detailed in the posting (e.g., what skills will you learn during the project, why does the interviewer enjoy working there, what are some immediate priorities for the role,   what qualities have successful interns/fellows or employees had that have been in this role, describe a typical day, etc.). This shows that you have done your research and demonstrates interest and excitement about the opportunity.
• Close by sincerely expressing your passion for the role and thank them for their time. You always want to end with a strong final impression. Additionally, crafting a thank you email to send within one to two business days is a beneficial and polite way to show your enthusiasm.  

Use your interview to elaborate on your education, experience, and skills, and how they fit into what the interviewer is looking for and don’t forget to show your passion. Let the interviewer know why you are interested and what you can add to the organization now and in the future. And remember that you are also making a valuable connection.   Even if the interview doesn’t land this role, they may reach out when another opportunity becomes available or refer you to others in the organization.

• Research the federal agency or department, national lab, scientific facility, or the employer . What is their mission, STEM areas,   goals and expectations? Are they a fit for you? Do they have any interesting initiatives or research areas you’d like to support?
• Self-reflect and know what you'd like to say about your skills and experiences . Review the opportunity you applied for and/or look at open postings that you may be interested in applying to at the organization. The key words listed are “clues” (description, qualifications, skill sets, experience, etc.) that can help you define what you should plan to discuss during the interview to illustrate how you are a “fit” for the role. Prepare examples of how you’ve demonstrated skills that are highly relevant to the position in question. Use approximately 30-second sound bites that you can use to expand on your answer. The STAR method—Situation, Task, Action, and Result—is one way to develop your response and tailor your answers to show relevance to the role and organization.
• Practice ! Find resources online from reputable sources about mock interview questions or setup a mock interview with your school’s career services office if available. Practice with friends reading the questions and listening to your answers.

Types of interview questions

There are a variety of types of interview questions.  Open-ended questions  give you the opportunity to speak about whatever comes to mind (e.g., "What interests you about this job?"). Other examples are open-ended, behavior-focused questions (e.g., "When was a time that you had to handle a disagreement with your supervisor? How did you handle it?”), and more technical questions, puzzle questions, creativity questions (e.g., “If you were a tree, what kind would you be?”) or case studies.

Most interviewers will ask you to tell them about yourself; this is your opportunity to “brag” on your relevant accomplishments while also giving a quick synopsis of your background. Prepare a 30-second elevator pitch before your interview to answer this question efficiently. An effective   pitch will include an introduction (e.g., name, school, major or degree), a summary of what you do (e.g., your background including experience), what you want/are interested in (e.g., interview, being a part of the mission, research opportunity, etc.,) and why your strengths/interests are relevant (e.g., skills, leadership, goals, what makes you unique, etc.)ending with a “call to action” (e.g., “Can you tell me more about…?”).   It should be brief (75 to 100 words), interesting, personalized, and confident.

How do you prepare for interview questions? Find resources online with common questions and example answers and think about how you might answer. Even if you’re asked a different question than what you’ve practiced, the self-reflection and answer-crafting you’ve done will help in preparing a response.

For  case studies and technical questions , most don’t have a “right” answer. Even if   presented as a skills-based exam, the review of your answers will likely focus on your thought process while stressed and/or how you respond with incomplete information. If   offered a note sheet, jot down thoughts as they come to you. Listen carefully to the questions and re-read them if they’re presented in text. Ask clarifying questions if needed. Focus on key, broad issues first, then get more specific with your answer. If you can, suggest specific steps rather than just theory. Especially for case studies, be conscious of resources (e.g., budget, capital, or personnel) needed for the answer and don’t be afraid to ask about them as a follow-up question. For puzzle or brain-teaser questions, the interviewer is looking for problem-solving and logical thinking skills. The idea answers for all show how/if you would get to a solution and your ability to explain your reasoning.  

Preparing for an interview requires some research, planning, and practice, but it is worth the time it takes to successfully demonstrate your interests, qualifications, and passion to land the perfect opportunity. Good luck!

Video Spotlight

Virtual interview tips.

Are you looking for an internship, but aren't sure how to approach the virtual interview? ORISE's Rebecca Cavender provides some tips and best practices on how to have a great interview experience.

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How to Invest in Stocks: A 7-Step Guide

Step 1: set clear investment goals, step 2: determine how much you can afford to invest, step 3: determine your risk tolerance and investing style, step 4. choose an investment account, step 5: fund your stock account, step 6: pick your stocks, step 7. learn, monitor, review, best stocks for beginners, the bottom line, how to start investing in stocks in 2024.

A 7-Step Guide To Get You Trading in the Market

Yarilet Perez is an experienced multimedia journalist and fact-checker with a Master of Science in Journalism. She has worked in multiple cities covering breaking news, politics, education, and more. Her expertise is in personal finance and investing, and real estate.

• Investing: An Introduction
• Stock Market Definition
• Primary and Secondary Markets
• How to Buy/Sell Stocks
• Market Hours
• Stock Exchanges
• How to Start Investing in Stocks: A Beginner’s Guide CURRENT ARTICLE
• What Owning a Stock Means
• The Basics of Order Types
• Position Sizing
• Executing Trades
• When to Sell a Stock
• Income, Value, Growth Stocks
• Commissions
• Investing and Trading Differences
• Stocks vs. ETFs
• Stocks vs. Mutual Funds
• ETFs vs. Mutual Funds
• What Is a Bond?
• Bond Yield Definition
• Basic Bond Characteristics
• How to Buy a Bond
• Corporate Bonds
• Government Bonds
• Municipal Bonds
• Options vs. Futures
• Essential Options Trading
• Diversification
• Measuring Investment Returns
• Corporate Actions
• Stock Fundamentals
• Essentials of Analyzing Stocks
• Evaluating Company Financials
• Technical Analysis

To trade stocks, you need to set clear investment goals, determine how much you can invest, decide how much risk you can tolerate, pick an account at a broker that matches your trading style, fund your stock account, and start trading.

It can be a powerful way to grow your wealth over time. This beginner’s guide takes you through the essential steps to invest in stocks. Whether you have thousands set aside or can invest a more modest $25 a week, let's get you started.

Key Takeaways

• Investing in stocks and letting your money work for you is one way to grow your wealth.
• Investing involves a chance of losses. However, there are ways to lower your risk, though you can't eliminate it altogether.
• New investors have never had so many resources for expert advice.
• Following these seven essential steps, you’ll learn how to set clear investment goals, choose the right stocks, and understand the basics of stock investing.

Investing in stocks involves purchasing shares of ownership in a public company in the hopes of seeing the company perform well in the stock market , leading to a share price increase that makes your investment more valuable.

Investing in stocks can lead to positive financial returns if you own a stock that grows in value over time. But you also face the risk of losing money if a share price falls over time.

Begin by specifying your financial objectives. Clear goals will guide your investment decisions and help you stay focused. Consider both short-term and long-term goals, as they will affect your investment strategy.

You might have short-term goals like saving for a home or a vacation or have long-term objectives like securing a comfortable retirement or funding a child’s education. Your objectives depend on your life stage and ambitions. Younger investors tend to focus more on growth and long-term wealth accumulation, while those closer to retirement typically prefer generating income and capital preservation. The more precise you are, the better.

Tips for Setting Investment Goals:

• Be precise about your objectives : Instead of vague goals like “save for retirement,” aim for specific targets like “accumulate $500,000 in my retirement fund by age 50.”
• Determine your investment horizon : Assess how long you have to achieve each goal. Longer time horizons often allow for more aggressive investment strategies, while shorter ones may require more conservative approaches. The longer you give yourself, the less conservative you'll need to be early on.
• Evaluate your finances : Be realistic about how much you can put toward your investment goals, considering your savings, regular income, and any other financial resources.
• Rank your goals : Most of us balance several goals at once, and we have to prioritize saving for a home down payment, paying for a wedding next year, or preparing for retirement based on urgency and importance. For example, saving for a down payment on a house might take precedence over planning a vacation.
• Adapt as life changes : The phrase financial planning is best taken as a verb, not a noun. It's an ongoing process that should evolve with your needs and aspirations. You might fall in love or out of it, have many children or none of them, or realize your life’s work means moving cross country. Regularly review and adjust your goals as your life circumstances change.

The first step in any venture is the biggest, but by setting clear and precise investment goals, you'll lay a strong foundation for building your investments. This clarity will help you navigate the stock market with confidence and purpose.

Pinpointing how much you can afford to put in stocks requires a clear-eyed assessment of your finances. This step helps ensure that you are investing responsibly without endangering your financial stability.

Tips for Determining Your Investment Amount:

• Review your income sources : Begin by listing all your sources of income. Check if your employer offers investment options with tax benefits or matching funds to amplify your investments.
• Establish an emergency fund : Ensure you have a solid financial foundation before investing. Solid does not mean perfect. This fund should cover a few months' worth of major expenses, such as mortgage or rent payments and other essential bills.
• Pay off high-interest debts : Financial planners typically recommend paying down high-interest debts, such as credit card balances. The returns from investing in stocks are unlikely to outweigh the costs of high interest accumulating on these debts. Thus, scrutinize each of your debts similarly, weighing the interest payments against potential investment returns. Likely, your debts will have to come first.
• Create a budget : Based on your financial assessment, decide how much money you can comfortably invest in stocks. You also want to know if you're starting with a lump sum or smaller amounts put in over time. Your budget should ensure that you are not dipping into funds you need for expenses.

Don't worry if your funds are less than you would wish. You wouldn't berate yourself for not being ready for a race on your first day of training; so, too, with investing. This is a marathon, not a sprint, and the journey is still ahead.

Two crucial points :

• Only invest money you can afford to lose.
• Never put yourself in a financially vulnerable position for the sake of investing.

Taking these seriously is what separates investing from gambling.

Understanding your risk tolerance is a cornerstone of investing. It helps you align your comfort level with the inherent uncertainties of the stock market and financial goals.

Tips for Assessing Your Risk Tolerance

• Self-assessment : Reflect on your comfort level with the ups and downs of the stock market. Are you willing to accept higher risks for potentially greater returns, or do you prefer stability even if that means potentially less in the end?
• Consider your time horizon : Your risk tolerance often depends on your investment timeline. Longer horizons allow for more risk since you have time to recover from potential losses. Shorter timelines typically require more conservative investments.
• Gauge your financial cushion : Assess your finances, including your savings, emergency fund, and other investments. A solid financial cushion can help you take on more risk.
• Align investments with risk levels : Choose stocks and other investments that align with your risk tolerance. Examples:
• Lower risk: Dividend stocks and bonds.
• Moderate risk: Midcap and large-capitalization stocks , index funds, and exchange-traded funds.
• High risk: Small-cap stocks, growth stocks, and sector-specific investments.
• Adjust over time : Your risk tolerance may change as your finances and goals evolve. Regularly reassess your risk tolerance and adjust your investment strategy accordingly.

By accurately determining your risk tolerance, you can build a portfolio that reflects your financial goals and personal comfort level, helping you navigate the stock market with more peace of mind.

Tips for Identifying Your Investing Style:

Whether you prefer a hands-on approach or a more passive strategy, understanding your investing style helps you choose the right investment methods and tools. Everyone has a different relationship with money. Some prefer an active role, meticulously pouring over every last cell on their portfolio's spreadsheets, while others opt for a set-it-and-forget-it approach. They trust their investments will grow over time if they just leave them alone.

Your style might evolve, but you'll need to start somewhere, even if your choice isn't set in stone.

Begin with a self-reflection on whether you enjoy researching and analyzing stocks or prefer a more detached approach. Here are your main choices:

1. DIY investing : If you grasp how stocks work and have the confidence to head out with minimal guidance into the market, managing the trades yourself is one option. Even DIY, there are more and less active approaches:

• Active : You use your brokerage account to access various investments, including stocks, bonds, and other assets, and trade as you wish. You'll set your goals and choose when to buy and sell.
• Passive : You use your brokerage account to buy shares in index ETFs and mutual funds. You still control which funds you purchase, but fund managers do the trading for you.

2. Professional guidance : For those who prefer a more personal approach and want more, an experienced broker or financial advisor is often invaluable. These financial professionals tailor their advice to your life experiences and goals, help you decide among the most promising stock choices, monitor your portfolio, and collaborate with you when things need changing.

You've figured out your goals, the risk you can tolerate, and how active an investor you want to be. Now, it's time to choose the type of account you'll use. Each has its own features, benefits, and drawbacks. In addition, the type of account you choose can greatly impact your tax situation, investment options, and overall strategy. You'll need to compare different brokers to find the investment account right for you.

Tips for Choosing Your Investment Account

1. Understand the different account types : In the table below, we've listed the differences between regular brokerage accounts, retirement accounts, and managed accounts. You'll want to choose one that'll work for you. We also list special accounts for education and health savings.

2. Consider the tax implications :

• Taxable accounts : These are the most common if you're trading online. Brokerage accounts don’t offer tax benefits, but there are no restrictions on contributions or withdrawals.
• Tax-deferred accounts : Contributions to traditional IRAs and 401(k)s cut taxable income, and taxes are deferred until you withdraw the money.
• Tax-free accounts : Roth IRAs and Roth 401(k)s are funded with after-tax dollars, but qualified withdrawals in retirement are tax-free.

3. Evaluate your investment goals : Match your investment account type with your goals. For long-term retirement savings, consider tax-advantaged accounts. For short-term goals or flexible investing, a standard brokerage account might be better.

4. Scrutinize account fees, commissions, and minimums :

• Trading commissions : These are fees brokers charge when you buy or sell securities. Many brokers now offer commission-free trades for particular investments, such as stocks and ETFs.
• Account maintenance fees : Some brokerage accounts may charge annual or monthly maintenance fees, which depend on the account type and balance.
• Inactivity fees : Brokers may charge fees if your account has little or no trading activity over a certain period.
• Subscription-based models : As Generation Zers and Millennials take up a larger share of the investment space, financial advisors, planners, and brokers are adjusting. Instead of paying per transaction or for specific services, you pay a flat monthly or annual fee. Your subscription may include commission-free trades, access to research tools, and other premium support.
• Account minimums: Momentous changes in recent years have resulted from immense competition among brokerages. Many online brokers have eliminated account minimums, making it easier for more investors to get started. If you have just a few dollars to invest, you can open a brokerage account and begin trading stocks.

5. Check for added features : Some accounts offer additional features such as automatic contributions, access to financial advisors, educational resources, and more. Select an account that provides the features that fit your preferences.

• Research and analysis : Choose a broker with robust research tools, market analysis, and educational resources to help you make informed decisions.
• User-friendly trading platform : It shouldn't be glitchy or too difficult for you to use. It's best if it has real-time quotes, sophisticated charting tools, and mobile access.
• Customer service : Look for brokers that offer several customer support options, including phone, email, live chat, and in-person support if needed.
• Reputation and security : Avoid any platform that is not regulated by authorities like the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Also, check that the broker employs strong security measures, such as encryption and two-factor authentication, to protect your personal and financial information.

6. Pick your broker : Brokers  are full-service, discount, or robo-advisory. A good broker will offer the tools, resources, and support you need to make informed investment decisions and manage your portfolio effectively.

• Full-service brokers : These pack an array of financial services into one offering, including financial advice for retirement, healthcare, and educational products. They might craft financial plans to help you save for college, prepare for retirement, navigate estate transitions, and tackle other major life events. This personalized service explains their typically higher fees—usually a percentage of your transaction values and assets under management. Some firms bill a yearly membership fee. To access these services, you'll typically need to invest at least $25,000, and they have traditionally catered to high-net-worth individuals.
• Discount brokers : These have much lower, if any, thresholds for access but have a typically more streamlined service that allows you to place individual trades (often for low or no commissions per trade). Most have educational materials on their sites and mobile apps. However, they may have other requirements and fees. Be sure to check on both and review our Best Online Brokers for Beginners of 2024 .
• Robo-advisors : For an automated solution, robo-advisors save money and take little effort on your part. If you select one, you won't be alone. According to Charles Schwab, 58% of Americans say they will use some sort of robo-advisor by 2025. They tend to offer fewer trading options and lack the personal approach to financial planning that's often best for long-term investing. Want to know more? See our Best Robo-Advisors of 2024 .

By this step, you've picked a broker that aligns with your investment goals and preferences or is simply the most convenient. You've also decided whether you're opening a cash account, which requires you to pay for investments in full, or a margin account, which lets you borrow when purchasing securities.

Once you've chosen a brokerage and account type, you'll open your account. This involves providing your personal information: Social Security number, address, employment details, and financial data. This shouldn't take you more than 15 minutes.

Now you'll have to fund it. Here are tips for doing so:

Tips for Funding Your Stock Account

1. Choose how you'll fund it :

• Bank transfer : The most common method is to transfer funds directly from your bank account. This can be done via electronic funds transfer or wire transfer.
• Check deposit : Some brokers allow you to mail a check to fund your account. This method can take longer but is viable if you prefer not to use electronic transfers.
• Transfer from another brokerage : If you have an existing brokerage account, you can transfer assets directly to your new account. This process, known as an ACATS transfer , is usually straightforward but may take a few days to complete.

2. Set up automatic contributions : Dollar-cost averaging involves investing a fixed amount of money at regular intervals over time, no matter what the market does. This cuts your risk of making bad decisions based on short-term market news. Most brokers let you customize the frequency and amount of your automatic contributions, making it easier to stay within your budget and keep on track with your investment goals.

3. Start investing : Once you've verified the funds are in your account (don't worry: the brokerage won't let you trade otherwise), it's time to start choosing the stocks that best fit your investment goals.

If you plan to trade frequently, check out our list of brokers for cost-conscious traders.

Even experienced investors grapple with choosing the best stocks. Beginners should look for stability, a strong track record, and the potential for steady growth. Resist the temptation to gamble on risky stocks, hoping for a quick windfall. Long-term investing is mostly slow and steady, not fast and rash.

Here are the types of stocks more likely to be solid bets when starting off:

• Blue chips : These are shares of large, well-established, and financially sound companies with a history of reliable performance. Examples include companies listed in the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the S&P 500. They are typically industry leaders and offer stability during market fluctuations.
• Dividend stocks : Companies that regularly pay dividends can be a good choice for beginners. Dividends give you a regular income, which can be reinvested to buy even more stock. See How to Buy Dividend Stocks to learn more.
• Growth stocks : The greater the chances for outsized growth in a stock, the riskier investing in it will be. Beginners interested in growth stocks should target industries with long-term potential, such as technology or healthcare.
• Defensive stocks : These are in industries that tend to do well even during economic downturns, such as utilities, healthcare, and consumer goods. They will give you a buffer against market volatility as you start.
• ETFs : Traded like stocks, these track market indexes like the S&P 500, and offer instant diversification, reducing the risk associated with individual stocks. As you gain experience, you can look at funds for sectors that pique your interest, themes that meet your investment goals, or funds pooling environmental, social, and governance  stocks.

It's prudent to begin with a conservative approach, focusing on stocks or funds that offer stability and a good track record. This will give you confidence and returns to trade with as you advance in your investing knowledge.

Successful investors discover tips and strategies each passing day. As the stock market changes, staying up to date, going back to Step 1, reviewing your goals, etc., will be key. Here are tips on learning about, monitoring, and reviewing your accounts with an eye toward your goals and risk tolerance.

Tips for Learning and Monitoring Your Stocks

• Read widely and regularly : Read reputable financial news sites. Keep informed about the global economy, industry trends, and the companies you are invested in. Avoid sites and books promising easy returns or tricks, not tips, likely to redound to their benefit when you buy their courses or apps. Books on investment strategies, stock market fundamentals, and diversification are essential.
• Use stock simulators : These are platforms that enable you to practice trading stocks risk-free using virtual money. They are excellent for applying investment theories and testing strategies without risk. Investopedia 's simulator is entirely free to use.
• Learn about diversification : Having taken your beginning steps here, you'll next want to spread your investments across diverse asset classes to cut down on risk and improve your potential for returns. When you're ready, we can help you learn how to diversify your portfolio beyond stocks .

You now need to monitor your stocks and other investments. Regular reviewing and staying informed will help you adjust when necessary to keep on track with your financial goals.

Picking the right stocks can overwhelm those starting to navigate the investing world—you're starting with a blank slate, and the options are endless. Here are ideas that aren't only the best for beginners but are many times the choice of the experts managing their own portfolios:

Index funds : These are not technically stocks but funds that trade shares like them. They are passively managed funds that track the performance of a particular market index, like the S&P 500, a collection of 500 major publicly traded American companies.

These might not come with the excitement of picking a stock and seeing it take off, but index funds take what would be impractical or too expensive for a beginner and let you invest in a whole pool of them. And they do well: According to the S&P Indices Versus Active score cards, a widely respected benchmark, about 90% of actively managed funds didn't match the returns of the S&P 500 over 10 and 15-year periods. This is simple but winning information: the most effortless route might be the most profitable.

Blue chip stocks : Classic investing advice has been to buy shares of well-established, stable companies with a history of consistent growth and dividend payments. The blue chips —named for the traditional color of the highest-value poker chips—have strong brand recognition, a solid market position, and a track record of weathering economic downturns. Investing in them can provide you with stability and the potential for steady, long-term returns.

Examples include Apple ( AAPL ), known for its ubiquitous technology products and loyal customer base; JP Morgan & Chase Co ( JPM ), the banking giant; Johnson & Johnson ( JNJ ), a healthcare giant that also owns manufacturers of many consumer goods; and Coca-Cola ( KO ), the soft drink maker that has distributed dividends each year since 1893.

Dividend aristocrats : Coca-Cola is not just a blue-chip stock but also belongs to a select group that has distributed and increased their dividends for at least 25 consecutive years. By investing in dividend aristocrats, beginners can benefit from the potential for rising income and the chance to reinvest the dividends for compound growth .

Examples include ExxonMobil ( XOM ), one of the world's largest oil and gas companies with a history of solid cash generation; Procter & Gamble Co. ( PG ), the consumer products multinational; and Walmart ( WMT ), the retail behemoth.

Low-volatility stocks : These companies' shares have historically had fewer price swings, providing more solidity to portfolios and, not for nothing, calm for investor heart rates. They often belong to "defensive sectors" (recession-proof parts of the economy) such as utilities, consumer staples, and healthcare.

Examples include companies we've mentioned already (Johnson & Johnson, Coca-Cola, Procter & Gamble, etc.), as well as Berkshire Hathaway ( BRK.B ), Brystol-Myers Squibb Company ( BMY ), Duke Energy ( DUK ), and the Hershey Company ( HSY ), whose stability even during financial storms shows that the love of chocolate doesn't go away when the economy hits some bumps.

Quality factor ETFs : These invest in companies with solid balance sheets, consistent growth in earnings, and other measures of good financial health. Quality factor ETFs take a rules-based approach to selecting stocks with low debt levels, stable earnings, and high returns.

Example funds include the iShares MSCI USA Quality Factor ETF, which holds large- and midcap U.S. stocks with solid quality characteristics, and the Invesco S&P 500 Quality ETF, which focuses on high-quality stocks within the S&P 500 index .

The potential drawback for each of these investments is that you might not see the outsized growth that riskier stocks could provide. In addition, past performance does not determine future results. If you have limited funds, this could be unappealing: more modest returns won't seem to add much when you don't have much to begin with.

However, reinvested dividends and compound growth add up. Investing is not gambling, and the reason to invest rather than go to a casino is that prudent, patient, and disciplined investing is how most investors get ahead.

How Much Money Do I Need To Start Investing in Stocks?

The amount needed depends on the brokerage firm and the investments you're interested in. Some online brokerages have no minimum deposit requirements, allowing you to start investing with a small amount of money. However, the price of individual stocks and the minimum investment for certain mutual funds or ETFs might require you to start with more of an initial investment. That said, there are many brokerages and investment options now for those starting with less to invest than there were a decade or two ago.

Are Stock Funds Good for Beginner Investors?

Stock funds, including mutual funds and ETFs that invest in a diversified portfolio of stocks, are a good option for beginner investors. They offer diversification, which helps spread risk across different stocks, and are managed by professional fund managers. In addition, stock funds allow beginners to invest in a broad range of stocks with a single investment, making it easier to get started without having to pick individual stocks. While you watch your mutual fund or ETF investment over time, you will also gain experience about the ebb and flow of the stocks these funds hold, good knowledge that will help you when investing later.

What Are the Risks of Investing?

Investing is a commitment of resources now toward a future financial goal. There are many levels of risk, with certain asset classes and investment products inherently much riskier than others. It is always possible that the value of your investment will not increase over time. For this reason, a key consideration for investors is how to manage their risk to achieve their financial goals, whether short- or long-term.

Do I Have To Live in the U.S. To Open a Brokerage Account?

To open a brokerage account, you don't have to live in the U.S. Many U.S. brokerage firms accept international clients. However, the application process and requirements will differ, including the need for additional documentation, such as proof of identity and residence. There are also some investments and services regulations curtailed for those who aren't U.S. citizens, but the experience is very similar. Most major online brokerages in the U.S. accept international clients.

How Do Commissions and Fees Work?

Most brokers charge customers a commission for every trade. Due to commission costs, investors generally find it prudent to limit the total number of trades they make to avoid spending extra money on fees. Certain other types of investments, such as exchange-traded funds, may carry additional fees to cover fund management costs.

Beginners can start investing in stocks with a relatively small amount of money. You'll have to do your homework to determine your investment goals, risk tolerance, and the costs of investing in stocks and mutual funds. You'll also need to research brokers and their fees to find the one that best fits your investment style and goals. Once you do, you’ll be well-positioned to take advantage of the potential stocks have to reward you financially in the coming years.

Internal Revenue Service. " Fact Sheet on College Savings Plans ."

Internal Revenue Service. " Publication 969 (2022) ."

Jen Hollers. " Subscriptions and a Sustainable Business in Financial Planning ." Journal of Financial Planning . (August 2023.)

Securities and Exchange Commission. " How Fees and Expenses Affect Your Investment Portfolio ."

Charles Schwab. “ The Rise of Robo: Americans’ Perspectives and Predictions on the Use of Digital Advice .” Page 3.

S&P Dow Jones Indices. “ SPIVA .”

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What Does a Product Marketing Manager Do? Key Roles & Responsibilities and Job Description

Last updated by Rishabh Dev Choudhary on Aug 01, 2024 at 01:00 AM | Reading time: 7 minutes

Rishabh Dev Choudhary

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How our relationships are changing in the age of “artificial intimacy"

Early adopters are flocking to AI bots for therapy, friendship, even love. How will these relationships impact us? MIT sociologist Sherry Turkle delves into her new research on "artificial intimacy."

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MIT sociologist Sherry Turkle on the psychological impacts of bot relationships

by  Manoush Zomorodi ,  Katie Monteleone ,  Sanaz Meshkinpour

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