animal health research paper topics

Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Veterinary medicine research paper topics encompass a wide range of subjects that contribute to the advancement of animal healthcare. This page provides a comprehensive guide for students studying veterinary medicine who are tasked with writing research papers. Explore the intricacies of this field, delve into diverse categories, and discover a multitude of compelling topics to delve into. Whether you’re interested in animal behavior, infectious diseases, pharmacology, or veterinary surgery, this guide will help you navigate the realm of veterinary medicine research paper topics. By offering expert advice on topic selection and providing valuable insights on how to write an impactful research paper, we aim to empower students to make significant contributions to the field of veterinary medicine. Furthermore, iResearchNet’s writing services ensure that students receive top-quality, customized research papers tailored to their unique requirements. Let us help you unleash your academic potential and make a lasting impact in the world of veterinary medicine.

100 Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Introduction: The field of veterinary medicine encompasses a vast array of disciplines and areas of study, offering a wealth of research opportunities for students. This comprehensive list of veterinary medicine research paper topics is divided into 10 categories, each containing 10 unique topics. By exploring these topics, students can gain a deeper understanding of various aspects of veterinary medicine and contribute to the advancement of animal healthcare.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code.

Animal Behavior and Psychology:

The impact of environmental enrichment on animal behavior and welfare
Behavioral interventions for managing aggression in dogs
Understanding the role of animal cognition in training and behavior modification
The relationship between human-animal interaction and animal behavior
Investigating stress and coping mechanisms in companion animals
The effects of socialization on the behavior and development of puppies and kittens
Exploring the psychological well-being of captive animals in zoos
Behavioral indicators and management strategies for pain in animals
Understanding the behavior and welfare of farm animals in intensive production systems
Investigating the impact of fear and anxiety on animal welfare in veterinary settings

Infectious Diseases:

Emerging zoonotic diseases and their impact on public health
Antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine: challenges and strategies
The role of vaccination in preventing infectious diseases in companion animals
Epidemiology and control measures for common bacterial infections in livestock
Investigating the transmission dynamics of vector-borne diseases in animals
Diagnostic methods and advancements in the detection of viral infections in animals
One Health approach: addressing the link between animal and human infectious diseases
The impact of climate change on the prevalence and distribution of infectious diseases in wildlife
Surveillance and control measures for emerging viral diseases in aquaculture
Exploring the impact of biosecurity measures in preventing the spread of infectious diseases in veterinary clinics and hospitals

Pharmacology and Therapeutics:

Investigating the efficacy and safety of new veterinary drugs and therapies
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of commonly used drugs in veterinary practice
Adverse drug reactions and drug interactions in veterinary medicine
Exploring alternative therapies in veterinary medicine: acupuncture, herbal medicine, and more
The role of personalized medicine in veterinary practice
Drug-resistant parasites and strategies for their control in companion animals
Investigating the use of pain management protocols in veterinary surgery
The impact of nutraceuticals and dietary supplements on animal health
Pharmacogenomics in veterinary medicine: implications for personalized treatment
Exploring the challenges and opportunities in veterinary drug development

Veterinary Surgery and Anesthesia:

Advancements in minimally invasive surgery in veterinary medicine
Anesthetic management and monitoring in exotic animal species
Investigating surgical techniques for the treatment of orthopedic conditions in companion animals
Complications and management of anesthesia in geriatric patients
Exploring the role of regenerative medicine in veterinary surgery
Surgical interventions for the management of oncological conditions in animals
Investigating novel approaches for pain management in postoperative veterinary patients
Surgical techniques and rehabilitation strategies for the treatment of spinal cord injuries in animals
Exploring the use of robotic surgery in veterinary medicine
Investigating the impact of surgical interventions on the quality of life in animals

Diagnostic Imaging and Radiology:

Advancements in imaging techniques for the early detection of cancer in animals
Investigating the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in veterinary neurology
The role of ultrasound in diagnosing and managing cardiovascular diseases in animals
Radiographic evaluation and interpretation of musculoskeletal disorders in small animals
Investigating the use of computed tomography (CT) in veterinary oncology
Diagnostic imaging in avian and exotic animal medicine
The impact of advanced imaging modalities on the diagnosis of gastrointestinal diseases in animals
Exploring the role of nuclear medicine in veterinary diagnostics
Radiographic evaluation and interpretation of respiratory disorders in large animals
Investigating the use of contrast-enhanced imaging techniques in veterinary medicine

Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology:

One Health approach in the surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases
Investigating foodborne pathogens and their impact on animal and human health
The role of veterinarians in disaster preparedness and response
Veterinary epidemiology: studying disease patterns and risk factors in animal populations
Investigating the impact of environmental factors on animal health and well-being
Exploring the relationship between animal agriculture and antimicrobial resistance
Veterinary public health interventions for the prevention of zoonotic diseases
The role of wildlife in the transmission of infectious diseases to domestic animals
Investigating the impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases in veterinary medicine
Surveillance and control measures for emerging and re-emerging diseases in veterinary public health

Animal Nutrition and Feed Science:

Investigating the impact of diet and nutrition on companion animal health
The role of nutritional interventions in the management of obesity in animals
Exploring the nutritional requirements and feed formulations for exotic animal species
Nutritional strategies for the prevention and management of metabolic diseases in livestock
Investigating the impact of feed additives on animal performance and health
The role of probiotics and prebiotics in promoting gut health in animals
Nutritional management of common gastrointestinal disorders in companion animals
Exploring sustainable and environmentally friendly feed options for livestock
Investigating the impact of nutrition on reproductive performance in animals
Nutritional considerations for the optimal growth and development of neonatal animals

Veterinary Education and Professional Development:

Evaluating the effectiveness of veterinary education programs in preparing students for practice
Investigating the role of simulation-based training in veterinary education
Exploring innovative teaching methods in veterinary schools
Assessing the impact of continuing education on veterinary professionals’ knowledge and skills
Investigating the factors influencing career choices among veterinary students
The impact of telemedicine on veterinary practice and client communication
Exploring the challenges and opportunities in veterinary entrepreneurship
Veterinary leadership and management skills for effective practice management
Investigating the role of mentorship in veterinary education and professional development
Exploring the ethical considerations in veterinary practice and research

Equine Medicine and Surgery:

Investigating advancements in diagnostic imaging techniques for equine lameness
Management strategies for musculoskeletal disorders in performance horses
The impact of nutrition and exercise on the prevention and management of metabolic diseases in horses
Exploring the use of regenerative therapies in equine orthopedics
Investigating the impact of respiratory diseases on the performance and welfare of horses
Equine dentistry: advancements in dental care and oral health management
Exploring novel surgical interventions for the treatment of orthopedic conditions in horses
The role of physical therapy and rehabilitation in equine medicine
Investigating the impact of exercise physiology on performance enhancement in horses
Infectious diseases and vaccination strategies in equine healthcare

Wildlife Medicine and Conservation:

Investigating the impact of habitat loss on wildlife health and conservation
Wildlife forensic medicine: techniques for investigating wildlife crimes
The role of veterinarians in wildlife rehabilitation and release programs
Exploring the impact of emerging infectious diseases on wildlife populations
Investigating the use of contraception in wildlife population management
Wildlife anesthesia and immobilization techniques for veterinary interventions
Exploring the role of veterinary medicine in endangered species conservation
Investigating the impact of pollution and environmental contaminants on wildlife health
Wildlife diseases and their potential for spillover to domestic animal populations
Conservation genetics: utilizing molecular techniques in wildlife management

This comprehensive list of veterinary medicine research paper topics provides students with a wide range of subjects to explore within the field. Whether you are interested in animal behavior, infectious diseases, pharmacology, surgery, or any other aspect of veterinary medicine, there are countless opportunities for research and innovation. By selecting a topic that aligns with your interests and career goals, and following the expert advice on how to choose and write a research paper, you can contribute to the advancement of veterinary medicine and make a lasting impact on animal health and welfare.

Veterinary Medicine: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Veterinary medicine plays a vital role in the health and well-being of animals, from beloved pets to livestock and wildlife. As a student studying veterinary medicine, you have the opportunity to delve into various research areas and contribute to advancements in animal healthcare. This article will explore the diverse range of research paper topics available within the field of veterinary medicine, offering you insights into the exciting and impactful areas of study.

Animal Nutrition and Feed Science : Proper nutrition is fundamental to the health and well-being of animals. Research topics in this area could include investigating the impact of diet and nutrition on companion animal health, exploring nutritional interventions for managing metabolic diseases in livestock, and examining sustainable and environmentally friendly feed options for animals.
Infectious Diseases : Infectious diseases pose significant challenges to animal health and public health. Research paper topics in this category could encompass emerging zoonotic diseases and their impact on human health, antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine, vaccination strategies for preventing infectious diseases in animals, and exploring the transmission dynamics of vector-borne diseases.
Animal Behavior and Psychology : Understanding animal behavior and psychology is essential for providing optimal care. Research topics in this field may involve studying the impact of environmental enrichment on animal behavior and welfare, behavioral interventions for managing aggression in dogs, investigating the cognitive abilities of animals, and exploring the role of human-animal interaction in animal behavior.
Pharmacology and Therapeutics : Pharmacology plays a critical role in treating and preventing diseases in animals. Research paper topics in this area could include investigating the efficacy and safety of new veterinary drugs and therapies, exploring alternative therapies such as acupuncture and herbal medicine, and studying the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of commonly used drugs in veterinary practice.
Veterinary Surgery and Anesthesia : Surgical interventions are often necessary for diagnosing and treating various conditions in animals. Research topics in this category could focus on advancements in minimally invasive surgery, investigating anesthesia management and monitoring in different animal species, exploring regenerative medicine in veterinary surgery, and studying the impact of surgical interventions on the quality of life in animals.
Diagnostic Imaging and Radiology : Diagnostic imaging techniques play a crucial role in diagnosing and monitoring diseases in animals. Research paper topics in this field may include advancements in imaging techniques for detecting cancer in animals, exploring the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) in veterinary diagnostics, and investigating the application of radiography and ultrasound in diagnosing specific conditions.
Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology : Veterinary medicine intersects with public health in various ways. Research topics in this area could involve the One Health approach in the surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases, studying the impact of environmental factors on animal and human health, and investigating the link between animal agriculture and antimicrobial resistance.
Equine Medicine and Surgery : Horses require specialized veterinary care due to their unique physiology and performance demands. Research paper topics in this category may include investigating advancements in diagnostic imaging techniques for equine lameness, studying the management strategies for musculoskeletal disorders in performance horses, and exploring the impact of respiratory diseases on horse performance and welfare.
Wildlife Medicine and Conservation : The health and conservation of wildlife are essential for maintaining biodiversity. Research topics in this field could include studying the impact of habitat loss on wildlife health, investigating wildlife rehabilitation and release programs, exploring the role of veterinarians in wildlife conservation, and understanding the diseases that affect wildlife populations.
Veterinary Education and Professional Development : Ensuring the competency and continuous development of veterinary professionals is crucial. Research paper topics in this area may involve evaluating veterinary education programs, exploring innovative teaching methods, studying the impact of continuing education on veterinary professionals’ knowledge and skills, and investigating the factors influencing career choices among veterinary students.

The field of veterinary medicine offers a wide range of research opportunities, spanning various disciplines and species. Whether you are interested in animal nutrition, infectious diseases, surgery, diagnostic imaging, public health, or any other aspect of veterinary medicine, there are numerous fascinating topics to explore. By selecting a research paper topic that aligns with your interests and goals, you can contribute to the advancement of veterinary medicine, improve animal health and welfare, and make a meaningful impact in the field.

Choosing Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research paper topic is crucial for your success as a student of veterinary medicine. It allows you to delve into an area of interest, contribute to existing knowledge, and explore the latest advancements in the field. In this section, we will provide you with expert advice on how to choose veterinary medicine research paper topics that align with your interests and academic goals.

Identify Your Interests : Start by reflecting on your personal interests within the field of veterinary medicine. Consider the areas that fascinate you the most, such as animal behavior, infectious diseases, surgery, diagnostic imaging, wildlife medicine, or public health. Identifying your passions will make the research process more enjoyable and rewarding.
Consult Your Professors and Mentors : Seek guidance from your professors and mentors who have expertise in different veterinary medicine disciplines. They can provide valuable insights into current research trends, emerging topics, and areas that need further exploration. Discuss your interests with them, and they can help you narrow down potential research paper topics based on their knowledge and experience.
Stay Updated with Current Literature : Stay abreast of the latest research publications, scientific journals, and conference proceedings in the field of veterinary medicine. Regularly reading scientific literature will expose you to new research findings, innovative techniques, and emerging topics. This will help you identify gaps in the existing knowledge that you can address through your research paper.
Consider Relevance and Impact : When selecting a research topic, consider its relevance and potential impact on veterinary medicine. Look for topics that address current challenges, emerging issues, or areas where advancements are needed. Research that can contribute to animal health, welfare, conservation, or public health will not only be academically fulfilling but also have real-world implications.
Analyze Feasibility : Assess the feasibility of your chosen research topic in terms of available resources, time constraints, and access to data. Consider the availability of research materials, laboratory facilities, animal populations, or specialized equipment required for your study. Ensure that your chosen topic is practical and achievable within the given timeframe and available resources.
Collaborate with Peers : Consider collaborating with your peers or fellow researchers who share similar research interests. Collaborative research projects can broaden your perspective, enhance the quality of your research, and facilitate knowledge sharing. Engaging in interdisciplinary collaborations can also help you explore topics that combine veterinary medicine with other fields, such as biology, ecology, or public health.
Seek Inspiration from Case Studies and Clinical Experience : Drawing inspiration from case studies, clinical experiences, or real-world scenarios can lead to intriguing research topics. Reflect on challenging cases you have encountered during clinical rotations, unique observations, or clinical questions that have piqued your interest. These experiences can spark ideas for research that address practical veterinary medicine issues.
Consider Ethical Considerations : When choosing a research topic, consider ethical considerations related to animal welfare and human subjects. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical guidelines and regulations. If your research involves animal subjects, be mindful of the ethical treatment and use of animals, and obtain necessary approvals from relevant ethics committees.
Explore Emerging Technologies and Techniques : Advancements in technology and techniques have a significant impact on veterinary medicine. Consider topics that explore the application of emerging technologies such as genomics, telemedicine, artificial intelligence, or novel diagnostic tools in veterinary practice. Research in these areas can contribute to the evolution of veterinary medicine and improve animal healthcare outcomes.
Seek Practical Relevance and Application : Choose research topics that have practical relevance and application in the veterinary field. Look for topics that address challenges faced by veterinarians, animal owners, or the industry. Research that can provide evidence-based solutions, improve clinical practices, or enhance disease prevention and management will have a direct impact on veterinary medicine.

Selecting a suitable research paper topic is a crucial step in your journey as a veterinary medicine student. By identifying your interests, seeking guidance, staying updated with current literature, considering relevance and impact, and analyzing feasibility, you can choose a research topic that is both intellectually stimulating and practically valuable. Remember to consider ethical considerations, collaborate with peers, and explore emerging technologies. By following these expert tips, you will be well-equipped to embark on a research project that contributes to the advancement of veterinary medicine and makes a positive impact on animal health and welfare.

How to Write a Veterinary Medicine Research Paper

Writing a research paper in veterinary medicine allows you to contribute to the field, explore new knowledge, and develop critical thinking and scientific communication skills. In this section, we will guide you through the process of writing a veterinary medicine research paper, from selecting a topic to crafting a compelling paper that effectively communicates your findings.

Define Your Research Objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research paper. Determine what you aim to accomplish and the specific research questions you want to answer. This will provide a clear focus and direction for your study.
Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Begin by conducting a comprehensive literature review to gather existing knowledge and identify gaps in the research. Analyze and critically evaluate relevant studies, articles, and scientific literature to establish the context for your research.
Refine Your Research Question : Based on your literature review, refine your research question or hypothesis. Ensure that your question is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). This will guide your research and help you stay focused.
Design Your Study : Select an appropriate research design and methodology that aligns with your research question and objectives. Determine the sample size, data collection methods, and statistical analyses required. Ensure that your study design is rigorous and ethically sound.
Gather and Analyze Data : Collect relevant data using appropriate research methods, whether it involves conducting experiments, surveys, interviews, or analyzing existing datasets. Ensure that your data collection is thorough, reliable, and accurately recorded. Use appropriate statistical tools to analyze your data and draw meaningful conclusions.
Organize Your Paper : Structure your research paper in a logical and organized manner. Include sections such as the introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Follow a clear and coherent flow of information that guides the reader through your research process.
Write an Engaging Introduction : Start your paper with an engaging introduction that provides background information on the topic, states the research problem, and highlights the significance of your study. Clearly articulate your research objectives and hypotheses to set the stage for the rest of the paper.
Present a Comprehensive Literature Review : Incorporate a thorough literature review in the body of your paper. Summarize and critically analyze relevant studies, theories, and findings that inform your research. Identify gaps in the literature and highlight the unique contribution of your study.
Describe Your Methods and Results : Clearly explain the methods you employed to conduct your research and gather data. Provide sufficient detail for others to replicate your study. Present your results objectively, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to support your findings. Interpret the results and discuss their implications.
Engage in a Thoughtful Discussion : In the discussion section, interpret your findings in the context of existing knowledge and theories. Discuss the implications of your results, their limitations, and any future directions for research. Address any unanswered questions and propose areas for further investigation.
Write a Strong Conclusion : Summarize your main findings and their significance in a concise and impactful conclusion. Restate your research objectives and hypotheses, and emphasize how your study contributes to the field of veterinary medicine. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
Cite Sources Accurately : Ensure that you cite all the sources used in your research paper accurately. Follow the appropriate citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, and adhere to the specific guidelines for referencing scientific literature and other relevant sources.
Revise and Proofread : After completing the initial draft, revise your paper for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Check for grammatical and spelling errors, and ensure that your writing is concise and precise. Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or professors to improve the quality of your paper.

Writing a veterinary medicine research paper requires careful planning, attention to detail, and effective communication skills. By defining your research objectives, conducting a thorough literature review, designing a rigorous study, and organizing your paper coherently, you can produce a high-quality research paper. Remember to write an engaging introduction, present a comprehensive literature review, describe your methods and results accurately, engage in thoughtful discussion, and provide a strong conclusion. Cite your sources properly and revise your paper meticulously. Through this process, you will contribute to the field of veterinary medicine and advance knowledge in the domain.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges that students face when it comes to writing research papers in veterinary medicine. We are here to provide you with professional writing services that cater to your specific needs. Our team of expert writers and researchers are well-versed in the field of veterinary medicine and can assist you in producing high-quality research papers. In this section, we will outline the range of services we offer and the benefits of choosing iResearchNet for your veterinary medicine research paper needs.

Expert Degree-Holding Writers : Our team consists of expert writers with advanced degrees in veterinary medicine and related fields. They have a deep understanding of the subject matter and can deliver well-researched and meticulously written research papers.
Custom Written Works : We provide custom written works that are tailored to your specific requirements. Whether you need a research paper from scratch or assistance with specific sections, our writers can create unique and original content that meets your academic standards.
In-Depth Research : Our writers conduct extensive research to gather the most relevant and up-to-date information for your research paper. They have access to reputable sources and scientific databases to ensure the accuracy and validity of the information presented in your paper.
Custom Formatting : We understand the importance of adhering to specific formatting styles required by academic institutions. Our writers are well-versed in various citation styles, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. They will format your paper according to the specific guidelines provided.
Top Quality : Quality is our utmost priority. We strive to deliver research papers that meet the highest standards of academic excellence. Our writers pay attention to every detail, ensuring that your paper is well-structured, coherent, and free from grammatical errors.
Customized Solutions : We recognize that each research paper is unique. Our writers work closely with you to understand your specific research objectives, requirements, and preferences. They can customize their approach to meet your specific needs and deliver a paper that aligns with your expectations.
Flexible Pricing : We offer flexible pricing options to accommodate the budgetary constraints of students. Our pricing is competitive and transparent, ensuring that you receive the best value for your investment. We offer affordable rates without compromising on the quality of our services.
Short Deadlines : We understand that students often face tight deadlines. Our team is equipped to handle urgent requests and can deliver high-quality research papers within short timeframes, even as tight as 3 hours. You can rely on us to meet your deadlines without compromising on quality.
Timely Delivery : We prioritize timely delivery to ensure that you have sufficient time to review and submit your research paper. Our writers work diligently to complete your paper within the agreed-upon timeframe, allowing you ample time for any revisions or modifications you may require.
24/7 Support : We provide round-the-clock support to address any queries or concerns you may have. Our customer support team is available 24/7 to assist you with any questions regarding our services, order placement, or ongoing projects. Feel free to reach out to us at any time.
Absolute Privacy : We understand the importance of confidentiality. Your personal information and the details of your research paper are treated with the utmost privacy and confidentiality. We adhere to strict data protection protocols to ensure the security of your information.
Easy Order Tracking : Our user-friendly platform allows you to easily track the progress of your research paper. You can communicate with your assigned writer, provide additional instructions or clarifications, and monitor the status of your order throughout the writing process.
Money Back Guarantee : We are committed to customer satisfaction. In the unlikely event that you are not satisfied with the quality of the research paper or the services provided, we offer a money-back guarantee. Your investment is protected, and we strive to ensure your complete satisfaction.

Choosing iResearchNet for your veterinary medicine research paper needs ensures that you receive professional, reliable, and customized writing services. Our team of expert writers, in-depth research capabilities, adherence to formatting guidelines, and commitment to quality will ensure that your research paper meets the highest academic standards. With flexible pricing options, timely delivery, 24/7 support, absolute privacy, and easy order tracking, we strive to make your experience with iResearchNet seamless and rewarding. Place your trust in us and let our expertise guide you towards academic success.

Achieve Excellence with iResearchNet!

Are you struggling with your veterinary medicine research papers? Do you find it challenging to choose the right topics, conduct in-depth research, and meet the high academic standards of your institution? Look no further! iResearchNet is here to provide you with the professional support you need to excel in your veterinary medicine studies. Our team of expert writers and researchers is ready to assist you in crafting top-quality research papers that will impress your professors and elevate your academic performance.

By choosing iResearchNet, you gain access to a range of benefits that will make your research paper writing experience smooth, efficient, and stress-free. Our team consists of highly qualified writers with expertise in veterinary medicine and related fields. They are equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to tackle even the most complex research topics. Whether you need assistance in selecting research paper topics, conducting thorough research, or structuring your paper, our experts are here to guide you every step of the way.

iResearchNet is your trusted partner in veterinary medicine research paper writing. With our experienced team, commitment to quality, customer-oriented approach, and range of services, we are dedicated to helping you succeed in your academic journey. Place your trust in us and experience the difference that professional assistance can make. Take the first step towards veterinary medicine research paper excellence and unlock your full potential with iResearchNet.

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

162 Best Animal Research Topics To Nail Your Paper In 2023

The world is filled with living things. There are some animals that we know about, some that we will discover, and there are many that we might never know about. All our knowledge about animals is mostly dependant on researchers.

Well, we are rooting for you to be the next great researcher. Be it zoology, veterinary, or live wild stock, your study needs a research topic. If you’re looking for the best animal research topics to nail this year, we’re here with your help.

Table of Contents

Best Animal Research Topics

We have 162 Animal Research Topics that will help you get the best grades this year.

Physiology of Animals Research Topics

Description of the knowledge required to work in animal physiology
Study of animal species with different specialties in the sciences of nature and life
Life sciences and socioeconomic impacts
Neurulation appendages birds
Exercises on gastrulation and neurulation
Gastrulation amphibians birds
Fertilization segmentation in the sea species
Gametogenesis: A Detailed Introduction
Study of Delimitation: bird appendages
Particularities of the developmental biology of certain species
Technical-commercial animal physiology
Terrestrial and marine ecosystems
Animal biology and forensic science: Is there a connection?
Animal Biology Biotechnology and molecules of interest regarding food and industry
The interest in biology in the diagnosis of animal and plant diseases
Toxicology and environmental health concerns in animal physiology
Animal and plant production
Fundamentals of animal physiology research and analysis
Behavior and evolution Genetics of behavior in animals
Adaptation and evolution of behavior
Comparative studies of general ecology, zoology, and animal physiology
Study of animals about the conditions prevailing in their immediate environment
Endocrine and neuroendocrine systems in animals
Studying the nervous systems in birds
Genitals and reproductive physiology of birds
Understanding of the anatomical and functional particularities of invertebrates
Biology and physiology of invertebrates
Reconstruction of phylogenetic trees
Morpho-anatomical arguments and the importance of fossils
Argued classification of animals
Study of the evolution of living organisms by making updates on recent advances in Animalia
Phylogeny and Animal Evolution
Principles of echolocation in the bats
Possible evolution of the increase in complexity of the primitive nervous system
The nervous system of the insect
Circulation in animal physiology
Animals without a differentiated circulatory system
Water and mineral balance in animals
Thermoregulation in animals
Musculoskeletal system in animals
Study of animal blood
Biological rhythms of animals
Skin and teguments of mammals
Animal nutrition and metabolism
Hormones and endocrine system of animals
Emerging organic pollutants
Mechanisms of toxicity in animals
Animal physiology in animals from temperate regions
Genetic correlations between animal species
Animal communities, forest ecology, and forest birds
Wildlife-habitat modeling

Looking for research topics in general? Read 402 General Research Paper Topics

Animal Research Topics For Student

Impact of the agricultural raw materials crisis on the marketing of livestock feed
Analysis of the competitiveness of poultry produced in the USA
Animal cruelty in USA and European countries
Seroprevalence of neosporosis in cattle herds
The peri-urban dairy sector
Effect of the liberalization of the veterinary profession on the vaccination coverage of livestock
Why do people kill animals? The psyche behind animal cruelty
Evaluation of the growth performance of three sheep breeds
Study on the protection of terrestrial ecosystems
Ecology of African dung beetles
Effects of road infrastructure on wildlife in developing countries
Analysis of the consequences of climate change related to pastoral livestock
Strategies for management in the animal feed sector
The feeding behavior of mosquitoes
Bee learning and memory
Immediate response to the animal cruelty
Study of mass migration of land birds over the ocean
A study of crocodile evolution
The cockroach escape system
The resistance of cockroaches against radiation: Myth or fact?
Temperature regulation in the honey bee swarm
Irresponsible dog breeding can often lead to an excess of stray dogs and animal cruelty
Reliable communication signals in birds

Also see: How to Write an 8 Page Research Paper ?

Animal Research Topics For University

Color patterns of moths and moths
Mimicry in the sexual signals of fireflies
Ecophysiology of the garter snake
Memory, dreams regarding cat neurology
Spatiotemporal variation in the composition of animal communities
Detection of prey in the sand scorpion
Internal rhythms in bird migration
Genealogy: Giant Panda
Animal dissection: Severe type of animal cruelty and a huge blow to animal rights
Cuckoo coevolution and patterns
Use of plant extracts from Amazonian plants for the design of integrated pest management
Research on flying field bug
The usefulness of mosquitoes in biological control serves to isolate viruses
Habitat use by the Mediterranean Ant
Genetic structure of the African golden wolf based on its habitat
Birds body odor on their interaction with mosquitoes and parasites
The role of ecology in the evolution of coloration in owls
The invasion of the red swamp crayfish
Molecular taxonomy and biogeography of caprellids
Bats of Mexico and the United States
What can animal rights NGOs do in case of animal cruelty during animal testing initiatives?

Or you can try 297 High School Research Paper Topics to Top The Class

Controversial Animal Research Topics

Is it okay to adopt an animal for experimentation?
The authorization procedures on animals for scientific experiments
The objective of total elimination of animal testing
Are there concrete examples of successful scientific advances resulting from animal experimentation?
Animal rights for exotic animals: Protection of forests and wildlife
How can animal rights help endangered animals
Animal experimentation are a type of animal cruelty: A detailed analysis
Animal testing: encouraging the use of alternative methods
Use of animals for the evaluation of chemical substances
Holding seminars on the protection of animals
Measures to take against animal cruelty
Scientific research on marine life
Scientific experiments on animals for medical research
Experimentation on great apes
Toxicological tests and other safety studies on chemical substances
Why isn’t research done directly on humans rather than animals?
Are animals necessary to approve new drugs and new medical technologies?
Are the results of animal experiments transferable to humans?
Humans are not animals, which is why animal research is not effective
What medical advances have been made possible by animal testing?
Animals never leave laboratories alive
Scientific interest does not motivate the use of animal research
Animal research is torture
How can a layperson work against animal testing?

Every crime is a controversy too, right? Here are some juicy Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics as well.

Animal Research Topics: Animal Rights

Growing awareness of the animal suffering generated by these experiments
What are the alternatives to animal testing?
Who takes care of animal welfare?
Major global organizations working for animal rights
Animal rights in developing countries
International animal rights standards to work against animal cruelty
Animal cruelty in developing countries
What can a layperson do when seeing animal cruelty
Role of society in the prevention of animal cruelty
Animal welfare and animal rights: measures taken against animal cruelty in developing countries
Animal cruelty in the name of science
How can we raise a better, empathetic and warm-hearted children to put a stop to animal cruelty
Ethical animal testing methods with safety
Are efforts being made to reduce the number of animals used?
The welfare of donkeys and their socioeconomic roles in the subcontinent
Animal cruelty and superstitious conceptions of dogs, cats, and donkeys in subcontinent
Efforts made by international organizations against the tragedy of animal cruelty
International organizations working for animal welfare
Animal abuse: What are the immediate measures to take when we see animal cruelty
Efforts to stop animal abuse in South Asian Countries
Animal abuse in the name of biomedical research

Talking about social causes, let’s have a look at social work topics too: 206 Social Work Research Topics

Interesting Animal Research Topics

The urbanization process and its effect on the dispersal of birds:
Patterns of diversification in Neotropical amphibians
Interactions between non-native parrot species
Impact of landscape anthropization dynamics and wild birds’ health
Habitat-driven diversification in small mammals
Seasonal fluctuations and life cycles of amphipods
Animal cruelty in African countries
Evolution of the environmental niche of amphibians
Biological studies on Louisiana crawfish
Biological studies on Pink bollworm
Biological studies on snails
Biological Studies on Bush Crickets
Biological Studies on Mountain Gorillas
Biological studies on piranha
Consequences of mosquito feeding
Birds as bioindicators of environmental health
Biological studies on victoria crowned pigeon
Biological studies on black rhinoceros
Biological studies on European spider
Biological studies on dumbo octopus
Biological studies on Markhor
Study of genetic and demographic variation in amphibian populations
Ecology and population dynamics of the blackberry turtle
Small-scale population differentiation in ecological and evolutionary mechanisms
Challenges in vulture conservation

Also interesting: 232 Chemistry Research Topics To Make Your Neurochemicals Dance

Submarine Animals Research Topics

The physiology behind the luminous fish
A study of Fish population dynamics
Study of insects on the surface of the water
Structure and function of schools of fish
Physiological ecology of whales and dolphins
Form and function in fish locomotion
Why do whales and dolphins jump?
Impact of Noise on Early Development and Hearing in Zebrafish
Animal cruelty against marine life on the hand of fishermen

Animal Biology Research Topics

Systematic and zoogeographical study of the ocellated lizards
Morphological study of neurohistogenesis in the diencephalon of the chick embryo
Anatomical study of three species of Nudibranch
The adaptive strategy of two species of lagomorphs
The Black vulture: population, general biology, and interactions with other birds
Ocellated lizards: their phylogeny and taxonomy
Studies on the behavior of ocellated lizards in captivity
Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards
The taxonomic and phylogenetic implications of ocellated lizards
Research on the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment
Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards in different countries
Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment in the light of evolutionary and ecological insights

Animal research topics are not hard to find for you anymore. As you have already read a load of them. You can use any of them and ace your research paper, and you don’t even need to ask permission. If you are looking for a paper writing service , be it animal research, medical research, or any sort of research, you can contact us 24/7.

Order Original Papers & Essays

Your First Custom Paper Sample is on Us!

Timely Deliveries

No Plagiarism & AI

100% Refund

Try Our Free Paper Writing Service

Related blogs.

Connections with Writers and support

Privacy and Confidentiality Guarantee

Average Quality Score

Animal Research Topics Unleashed: Fauna Frontiers

Table of contents

1 How to Choose Animals Research Topics?
2.1 Animal Physiology Research Topics
2.2 Controversial Animal Topics
2.3 Animal Rights Topics For Research Paper
2.4 Interesting Animal Research Topics
2.5 Veterinary Topics For Research Paper
2.6 Animal Testing Research Topics
2.7 Animal Cruelty Topics
2.8 Research Questions about Animals
3 Get Professional Help for Your Animal Research Paper

Contrary to popular belief, animal research topics are not only used by veterinarians. They are also pursued by students majoring in Healthcare, Sound Engineering, and even subjects like Fashion Studies and Chemistry. Of course, it may require writing an excellent custom research paper because the trick here is to tailor things to what you need. The most challenging, however, is to choose your topic correctly and avoid being vague about what you must explore. Even if you would like to explore environmental issues, using animal research topics will be essential. You need to provide an explanation of your reasoning and the negative effects of human interaction with flora and fauna.

How to Choose Animals Research Topics?

While there may be no universal topic that will reflect all sides of animal-related research, consider those subjects that you know well. It must inspire you and be an area where you feel comfortable. If you love marine life and can provide personal research examples, it would be good to choose something that will suit a reflection journal. Alternatively, consider animal topics for research papers that can be supported by reliable sources and statistical information.

Start with an outline or a list of arguments that you would like to explore. Once done, continue with the wording for your topic that introduces the problem and offers a solution. You may also pose a research question about a problem or make a claim that will be supported by what you include in your paper. Always refer to your grading rubric and choose your research paper type accordingly. For example, your nursing research paper may talk about the use of animals for rehabilitation purposes, while a legal student may talk about animal rights in various countries. It all should be approached through the lens of what you learn as a primary subject!

50+ Most Interesting & Easy Animal Research Topics

Animal physiology research topics.

As you might already know, animal physiology studies anything related to the physical processes, changes in behaviors, breeding patterns, and more. As you think about choosing the animal physiology branch, always narrow things down if possible.

Life-supporting properties of trained dogs in the wilderness.
Homeostatic processes in migrating birds and the global warming challenges.
The changes in circadian pacemakers and the processes of aging.
The changes in flora and related metabolomic-based processes.
Self-healing practices and digestive enzyme aspects.
Food intake and glucose stimulation methods.
Insensitivity to insulin: causes and consequences among domestic animals.
Muscle cells development and fat management.
Fish and Shellfish immunology processes in relation to Covid-19 studies.
The role of mammals in the prevention of aquatic toxicology.

Controversial Animal Topics

This aspect of animal research essay writing may not be everyone’s cup of tea, which is why it is necessary to explore the facts and provide information that represents both sides of the debate. Stay sensitive and avoid being too graphic unless it is necessary. Below are some ideas to consider:

The cultural practices of whaling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland.
Animal testing and vaccination practices in Asian countries.
The use of horses, camels, and donkeys to entertain tourists in the Middle East.
The consequences of irresponsible dog breeding practices.
Climate change and the subsequent loss of the natural habitat.
The dark truth about the ivory trade.
The use of pets for advertisement and promotional purposes.
Animal rights protection and restrictions of breeding.
SPA for the pets: a natural development or immoral practice?
Animal trading and certification issues.

Animal Rights Topics For Research Paper

The subject of animal rights is popular among students coming from all academic disciplines. Since you can approach it via the philosophical, legal, or medical lens, think about how to reflect your primary skills. It will make your research of animal right topics sound more confident.

The regulation of puppy mills and breeding in the United States.
The legal aspect of animal sports and related regulation.
How should one treat pets that have been abandoned by the owners?
Clothing industry and legal regulations: from trading to advertisement.
The use of innovative methods in medical research and experimentation.
Animal ethics and the theological aspect of animal rights.
Training your dog well: what are the basic behavior rules to consider?
The breeding limitations and the farming practices in the United Kingdom.
Animal rights in the United States vs regulations in Canada.
Animal trading: what country should be held responsible for animal mistreatment?

Interesting Animal Research Topics

Why do elephants remember everything and how does their brain work?
Perception of love and affection among dogs vs cats.
The communication methods used by the dolphins.
Do horses feel the spirit of the competition during the ride?
Perception of children and the elderly by mammals.
Survival in the wilderness and the hunt for water.
The navigation system of the working bee.
How has technology changed domestic animals and their habits?
The use of dogs in the world’s rescue operations: unusual case studies.
Establishment of emotional bonds with dogs vs cats.

Veterinary Topics For Research Paper

In the majority of cases, you may refer to your veterinary branch first and proceed from there or take a look at the variety of veterinary research topics that we have presented below. Remember to quote every citation and idea that has been taken from other sources to avoid plagiarism.

How to establish immune responses in chickens by using disease vaccine prevention methods?
How do low doses of ketamine affect healthy dogs during epidural anesthesia?
The use of biomarkers for therapeutic purposes and the role of pet owners.
RNA genetic analysis and the use of AI-based endometria research to establish common sequences.
What do we know about canine coronavirus research: pros and cons of artificial modeling.
Egg production changes related to air pollution and chemical vapors.
Wildlife surveillance ethics in the United States: pros and cons of modern remote monitoring.
What are the causes and consequences of selenium deficiency and how can this aspect be addressed by the tissue analysis.
Veterinary cardiology principles and the use of knowledge sourced from human cardio-vascular research.
Canine immunopathologies and the high levels of stress caused by Covid-19 restrictions and social distancing.

Animal Testing Research Topics

Even though this subject seems to be discussed everywhere these days, finding good animals topics to write about that deal with animal testing is not easy. Think about what are the underlying reasons for testing and what forces scientists to use it as a method. It will help you come up with ideas and better exploration strategies.

Does finding a cure without the use of animals represent only an economical challenge?
Genetic research in the United States and the use of animals for research purposes.
Should animal cloning and illegal breeding practices be banned?
Beauty products industry and animal testing controversies.
Stell Cell Research: the role of animals in the current advancement.
Cell modulation and modeling as the replacement of animal testing.
Animal experimentation and the history of the world’s vaccination methods.
Does animal testing lead to safety in relation to emerging diseases?
Animal lifespan and the research objectives for medical testing.
Current human testing practices: do they represent an alternative to animal testing?

Animal Cruelty Topics

Warning: writing about animal cruelty subject is not for everyone, which is why you must be aware that the facts and statistics you may find will be shocking. It should be explored only if you are ready to embrace this disturbing subject. At the same time, you can explore milder animal cruelty cases like using pets as influencers on social media or the use of donkeys at the beaches to entertain tourists. There is always something to think about!

The practice of cockfighting.
The cultural heritage of bull-fighting in Spain.
The use of monkeys for entertaining purposes.
How are animal rights obeyed during filming practices?
The use of pets as animal beauty promoters and social media influencers.
Illegal farming practices in Asian countries and the Middle East.
How can dog hunters be identified and punished?
Why does whaling still continue in the Faroe Islands?
The use of natural fur during beauty commercials.
Vegetarian foods production: how justified it is for natural animal habitat?

Research Questions about Animals

When you would like to take a general approach to animals research, it is good to come up with a research question as a part of your thesis statement or main argumentation. See these animals research paper examples:

The use of canines in cancer research methods: what breeds fit the most?.
Pig kidney transplantation methods: what are the core genetic aspects.
The use of rats in the decrease of immune diseases: why do they represent the most fitting species?
Blood transfusions and the use of animal cardio-vascular system principles: what are the points to consider?
Can animal behavior patterns be helpful for use in human mental diseases?
Animal Welfare Regulations: are there mechanisms to have an impact on animal care?
The use of dangerous dog breeds in the world: should such breeding be regulated like gun control?
Improvement of cognitive functions among children who are dog owners: what is the role of the animals in question?.
PTSD among military veterans: how can we use the animals to help the healing processes?
The study of myocardial infarction in primates vs canine studies: why dogs represent better research models?

Get Professional Help for Your Animal Research Paper

Without a doubt, it is easy to get stuck with a multitude of topics and ideas. If you are planning to write about animal rights but do not know how to include certain animal physiology principles, it is safer to consider timely help with research paper. Our skilled team of specialists in this field will provide you with relevant sources and will help you polish things to perfection when you need assistance or do not know how to continue.

The same relates to checking your existing draft and citations in terms of plagiarism and originality. Writing about animals is never easy, which is why we know how you feel and also realize what your college professors expect to see. Take a look at our research topics about animals, trust us with your concerns and we shall help you achieve success!

Readers also enjoyed

WHY WAIT? PLACE AN ORDER RIGHT NOW!

Just fill out the form, press the button, and have no worries!

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy.

How it works

Useful Links

How much will your dissertation cost?

Have an expert academic write your dissertation paper!

Dissertation Services

Get unlimited topic ideas and a dissertation plan for just £45.00

Order topics and plan

Get 1 free topic in your area of study with aim and justification

Yes I want the free topic

45+ Veterinary Dissertation Topics

Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On May 3, 2024

Veterinary medicine is a broad area of study, so there are many potential issues you can base your dissertation or thesis on. You may want to consider veterinary science comparable to human health care, such as laboratory animal medicine, animal welfare, and law so that you can come up with an impactful veterinary dissertation topic.

Choose an interesting but focused research topic that enables you to contribute to your field of study. Choosing a topic for a paper or dissertation is one of the most crucial decisions students must make. So, avoid writing about an idea that is so narrow that you end up having no academic sources to use in the res earch.

Veterinary Dissertation Topics and Ideas

Animals used for fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC)
Necropsy’s significance in veterinary medicine
The value of veterinarians to the retail industry
Examination of contemporary pet vaccinations
Why not crocodiles or zebras? – investigating contemporary quirks in pet selection
Investigating the components of natural animal feeds as the pet food business transitions to natural
Rural locations with poor veterinary care: cause and remedies
Fear or the dominance theory? – investigating the behavioural issues with dogs
The best remedies for thunderstorm anxiety
Why do the majority of pets have this phobia? Is it treatable?
Is it a myth that animals act poorly because they want to rule the pack?
Why do owners of sick animals need to be on guard?
Environmental influences on chickens’ egg-laying productivity
When do some chickens produce more eggs than others? What are the ideal circumstances to maintain their high levels of productivity?
Cardiovascular changes in canine leishmaniasis
Relevant clinical alterations in breast cancer in stage 3 females
Cancer patients’ nutritional needs and metabolic changes are managed
Review of the literature on alternative methods for treating canine atopic dermatitis
Analysis of the primary epidemiological traits present in a buck with a breast tumour
Cost-benefit analysis of supplemental mineral feeding to beef cattle
Little ones frequently experience heart disorders
Breast cancer reconstruction procedures for female dogs and cats
Laws and public education about animal abuse
An outline of the veterinary nurse’s responsibility in stopping owner maltreatment of animals
Following surgery, the animals get rehabilitation
What part does the veterinary nurse play in addressing the psychological effects of animal abuse? Is there any way to make it better?
Illnesses that are extremely contagious and harm domestic animals
Veterinary students are taught about public health as part of their training
Treatment of sporty horses with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications
Effectiveness of homoeopathic medication in controlling ticks in dairy cattle
A case study of bitches treated at the university veterinary hospital for breast cancer
Study of sporotrichosis and visceral leishmaniasis notifications in the CCZ
Investigation of the anaesthesia procedure death rate in tiny animals undergoing surgery
Ways to improve how domestic animals are treated in the public network
The significance of electrocardiography in dogs before surgery
Neoplasms in an animal’s reproductive system
The relevance of veterinarians in meeting retail needs
Factors affecting milk quality in family farm settings
As a technique for sustainability in agriculture, rotated grazing
Prevalence of breast cancers in women and examination of their clinical and epidemiological features
Cigarette carcinogens bring on principal tumours in dogs and cats
Carcinogen-related cancer types manifested in dogs and cats exposed to smoke
Gentamicin intramammary therapy in lactating cows with clinical and subclinical mastitis
Aloe vera and arnica Montana as natural remedies for horse pythiosis
Examine the veterinary nursing policies and practices of various nations and any potential working circumstances for nurses there
An Investigation on how changing climate patterns affect the distribution of animal diseases and the practice of veterinary medicine.
An Analysis of different approaches to prevent and control zoonotic diseases in animals and humans
Exploring recent advancements in surgical techniques for veterinary procedures
Examining the relationship between animal behaviour, welfare, and veterinary care and proposing strategies to improve the well-being of animals in clinical settings.
Investigating the development of new drugs for veterinary use
The concept of One Health and its application in managing complex health issues at the intersection of human and animal health
Study newly emerging infectious diseases in animals and implications for veterinary practice and public health.
A Comparative study on different diagnostic imaging techniques used in veterinary medicine
The effectiveness of veterinary education and training programs in preparing graduates for professional practice

Order a Proposal

Worried about your dissertation proposal? Not sure where to start?

Choose any deadline
Plagiarism free
Unlimited free amendments
Free anti-plagiarism report
Completed to match exact requirements

These topics will help you get motivated to start working on your dissertation. You should also check out our list of biology dissertation topics for more inspiration.

If the topic you choose is interesting and reflects your passion for the subject, it will be much easier for you to complete the dissertation in due time. However, if you face difficulties due to lack of knowledge, time or any other reason, now is the time to use our professional dissertation services ! Hiring a professional writer can help you achieve your desired academic grade from the comfort of your bed.

Free Dissertation Topic

Phone Number

Academic Level Select Academic Level Undergraduate Graduate PHD

Academic Subject

Area of Research

Frequently Asked Questions

How to find veterinary dissertation topics.

To find veterinary dissertation topics:

Investigate emerging animal health issues.
Explore gaps in current research.
Consider ethical concerns.
Review recent advancements.
Consult experts and faculty.
Select a topic aligning with your passion and career aspirations.

Issues and special features of animal health research

Christian Ducrot 1 ,
Bertrand Bed'Hom 2 ,
Vincent Béringue 3 ,
Jean-Baptiste Coulon 4 ,
Christine Fourichon 5 ,
Jean-Luc Guérin 6 ,
Stéphane Krebs 5 ,
Pascal Rainard 7 ,
Isabelle Schwartz-Cornil 3 ,
Didier Torny 8 ,
Muriel Vayssier-Taussat 9 ,
Stephan Zientara 10 ,
Etienne Zundel 11 &
Thierry Pineau 12

Veterinary Research volume 42 , Article number: 96 ( 2011 ) Cite this article

52k Accesses

19 Citations

5 Altmetric

Metrics details

In the rapidly changing context of research on animal health, INRA launched a collective discussion on the challenges facing the field, its distinguishing features, and synergies with biomedical research. As has been declared forcibly by the heads of WHO, FAO and OIE, the challenges facing animal health, beyond diseases transmissible to humans, are critically important and involve food security, agriculture economics, and the ensemble of economic activities associated with agriculture. There are in addition issues related to public health (zoonoses, xenobiotics, antimicrobial resistance), the environment, and animal welfare.

Animal health research is distinguished by particular methodologies and scientific questions that stem from the specific biological features of domestic species and from animal husbandry practices. It generally does not explore the same scientific questions as research on human biology, even when the same pathogens are being studied, and the discipline is rooted in a very specific agricultural and economic context.

Generic and methodological synergies nevertheless exist with biomedical research, particularly with regard to tools and biological models. Certain domestic species furthermore present more functional similarities with humans than laboratory rodents.

The singularity of animal health research in relation to biomedical research should be taken into account in the organization, evaluation, and funding of the field through a policy that clearly recognizes the specific issues at stake. At the same time, the One Health approach should facilitate closer collaboration between biomedical and animal health research at the level of research teams and programmes.

1. introduction, 2. issues and special features of animal health research, 2.1. animal health and veterinary public health, 2.2. issues at stake in animal health, 2.3. importance of diseases, prioritization of issues at stake, 2.3.1. special features of diseases according to the types of animals, 2.3.2. prioritization of issues at stake, 2.3.3. issues at stake in animal health research, 3. special features of animal health research, 3.1. distinguishing features of the objectives, methods, and biological models, 3.2. special features of scientific questioning, 3.3. generic and methodological areas of convergence with human health, 4. relationships between animal health and human health research, 4.1. domestic animal models for human targeted research, 4.2. funding and evaluation of research, 4.3. parallels between research, surveillance of diseases and the pharmaceutical industry, 4.3.1. surveillance and control of diseases.

4.3.2. Pharmaceutical industry

4.4. The "One world, One Health" approach

5. Conclusion

Competing interests, authors' contributions, acknowledgements.

Understanding of animal health research, and the expectations of donors and research organizations, is changing. A growing number of actors consider such research from the limited perspective of the dangers and risks directly posed to human health by traditional and emerging animal diseases. Some furthermore consider health as an asset shared by all species, animal and human, that would be guaranteed by a single medicine guided by biomedical research. In this evolving context, a collective discussion on the special features of animal health research, the issues at stake and the specific contributions such research can provide to generic health research was deemed necessary. This article summarizes the results of this discussion, addressing the issues at stake at the global level. Presented in three sections, the first describes the challenges facing animal health and research on animal health, the majority of which are not related to zoonotic diseases. The second section describes the distinguishing features of animal health research that are related to scientific constraints, the manner by which the discipline is grounded in an agricultural and economic context, and the perspectives from which scientific questions are posed. The third section addresses the relationships between animal health and biomedical research. The conclusion proposes changes that would permit research to be adapted to the special features of the field while at the same time favouring partnerships with research on human health. This discussion deliberately was limited to livestock; pets and wild animals only are mentioned for purposes of comparison.

In animals, health may be defined as the absence of disease or the normal functioning of an organism and normal behaviour based on the observation of a certain number of individuals that determine the standard and thus health [ 1 ]. In production sectors, health also may be defined as the state allowing the highest productivity. However, this narrow definition often is enriched by the concept of a balance between the animal and its environment, and of the animal's physical welfare. This broader definition undoubtedly is linked to changes observed in the field of veterinary medicine, which is focussing increasingly on prevention rather than cure, and which takes the animal's environment into fuller account [ 2 ].

Animal diseases may be organized schematically into three categories. Multifactorial diseases are provoked by a set of risk factors linked in particular to livestock management, with at times the participation of pathogens widespread in livestock. Known as "production diseases", multifactorial diseases are present on a large majority of livestock farms with highly variable frequencies. The major epidemic diseases are highly contagious and impact livestock heavily (for example, foot-and-mouth disease, swine fever, highly pathogenic avian influenza); the challenge is to eradicate such diseases from a territory when possible, and their appearence in a totally susceptible population can have extensive health and economic consequences. Other transmissible infectious diseases are less contagious or have slighter impacts, and frequently are present in populations in an endemic manner. Among transmissible diseases are zoonotic diseases, which are those that can be transmitted to humans. Animals also may be healthy carriers of agents that are pathogenic for humans but which do not affect the health of the animal (for example, Salmonella and Campylobacter ).

In response to these challenges, and picking up on a framework produced by international bodies (World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World organization for Animal Health (OIE)), WHO [ 3 ] currently defines veterinary public health as " the sum of all contributions to the physical, mental and social well-being of humans through an understanding and application of veterinary science ". In an editorial of the OIE bulletin [ 4 ], The Veterinary Services are stated as the " key players in the prevention and control of animal diseases and in the improvement of food security, nutrition, food safety, veterinary public health and market access for animals and products ". Veterinary public health activities thus include the control of animal diseases that have a direct impact on human health due their zoonotic character, as well as the control of all non-transmissible animal diseases capable of causing important production losses (safety of animal product supply) and disrupting markets (animal and products of animal origin).

There are four types of issues at stake in the field of animal health:

1/ Economic issues for a range of diseases that impact the economic viability of livestock farms (notably livestock diseases and endemic diseases that lead to production losses, prevention or treatment costs, disruption of the farm or the work of the livestock farmer) and animal production sectors (notably epidemic diseases due to their effect on production, the impact of health regulations on markets, and impediments to trade). In industrialized countries, these diseases weigh heavily on the overall economic competiveness of livestock farms, businesses, and animal production sectors. In developing countries, there are the added risks of food scarcity, capital dilution (insofar as cattle constitute standing capital, the only form of savings and social security for many people), and the loss of draught and labor power (leading to a reduction in overall agricultural efficiency).

2/ Public health issues , which concern three domains: zoonoses, infectious or parasitic diseases transmissible from animals to humans, whether contagious (for example, tuberculosis, brucellosis, certain influenza viruses), vectorial (West Nile disease, Rift Valley fever, Lyme disease), or food-borne (BSE, toxic food poisoning); resistance to antibiotics; and traces of medicine in animal products.

3/ Environmental issues related to the impact of agriculture; this involves the dumping of xenobiotics into the environment (medicine residues), the spread of resistance to antibiotics, and infectious diseases that can be transmitted between domestic and wild animals (such as bovine tuberculosis detected in wildlife).

4/ Animal welfare issues , which are related closely to changes of regulations in this domain. Diseases induce suffering and pain, the absence of which is one of the criteria chosen for recently proposed animal welfare evaluation tools [ 5 ].

In a recent report on the state of food and agriculture in the world focusing on livestock, the FAO [ 6 ] summarizes these different issues at stake as: "Animal diseases, and a lack of adequate food hygiene resulting in foodborne illnesses, are a problem for everyone because they can threaten human health, disrupt markets and trade, reduce productivity and deepen poverty. Improving the management of livestock with a view to preventing and controlling disease can provide significant economic, social, and human health benefits for the poor and for society at large" . Among the report's four key messages, it is noted that, " Livestock diseases pose systemic risks that must be addressed ."

For all of these diseases, while the issues at stake primarily concern agricultural farms, associated economic sectors also are involved: live animals, products of animal origin, agricultural inputs and services. Consumers and citizens are all concerned, as much by quantitative and qualitative food security as by public health. Livestock and agro-food sectors play a central role in industrialized countries, reaching 53% of the gross domestic product [ 7 ] (food safety, extensive economic activities linked to supplying the livestock sector which include the pharmaceutical industry, and the valorization and trade of agricultural products and food that often are very technologically advanced), as in developing countries (subsistence agriculture, food security, intake of quality protein). The economic issues involved in animal health, without even mentioning the risks of bioterrorism, therefore represent critical strategic challenges , even if they receive less media coverage than public health issues.

Furthermore, these different types of issues are not independent of each other . For example, the risk of the presence of medicine residues in animal products, as well as the risk of antibiotic resistance coming from the animal world, are both public health issues, and are both directly correlated to the frequency of enzootic diseases impacting the economic equilibrium of animal production chains; they thus pertain above all to the economic stakes involved in ensuring animal health.

For production animals, infectious and parasitic diseases predominate, even if metabolic and degenerative disorders naturally exist that most frequently are related to an insufficient control of production systems. In contrast, household pets and sports animals present a pathological profile very similar to humans (endocrinian disorders, cancers, degenerative neuro and osteoarticular diseases, obesity, aging). This leads to a more reduced presence of infectious and parasitic pathologies in favour of internal medicine, cancerology, and endocrinology, although antibiotic and anti-parasite medicines and vaccines together account for 75% of the consumption of medicine by pets. Lastly, non-captive wildlife constitutes a relatively new subject of animal health research, principally concerning major epidemiological reservoirs of potentially zoonotic agents (for example, bat lyssavirus and avian influenza) and sentinels of contamination and toxicologic pollution of the environment.

It is difficult to arrange the different challenges presented by animal diseases and their control into an order of priority. There are several ways to assess the importance of animal diseases. The first is to estimate their impact on zootechnical and economic performance . The average mortality rates of animals in Western European livestock systems can be significant for certain age groups, and may reach high levels in herds when pathology is poorly controlled. For example, the mortality of calves before weaning is on average 12%, that of dairy cows 3%, that of piglets before weaning 20% (including stillborns), with another 7% loss between the weaning and slaughter of pigs. The various costs of controlling disease are added to those of mortality. The current economic impact of mastitis in dairy cows in France may be assessed at 350 million €/year, principally due to reductions in productivity and longevity, reduced sale prices of milk and the costs of prevention measures and treatment. In poultry, coccidioses have a major impact; based on a British model [ 8 ], their global economic impact is estimated at over two billion dollars, principally due to their impact on production and feed efficiency. In the case of endemic diseases, economic losses remain usually limited in each farm, but the global economic impact is high due to the large number of farms affected [ 9 ]. The probability of epidemic diseases is lower but when present, they may induce very severe losses [ 10 ], even beyond the agronomic and agri food sectors.

OIE's list of notifiable diseases [ 11 ] includes infectious transmissible diseases deemed to be most damaging at the international level from an economic and public health point of view; among the 119 diseases listed, only 31 are zoonotic to one degree or another [ 12 ]. The declared priorities of international bodies (WHO, FAO, OIE) federated under the GLEWS [ 13 ] programme ( Global Early Warning and Response System for Major Animal Diseases, including Zoonoses ) for the surveillance and monitoring of animal diseases nevertheless derive from an approach first initiated by WHO that gave priority to zoonotic diseases. This is why the GLEWS list includes 6 non-zoonotic and 19 zoonotic diseases.

On the basis of vaccine production, it should be noted that almost all those used in the field of animal health protect against strictly animal pathogens. The rabies vaccine is one of the rare veterinary vaccines meant to protect humans. Certain other veterinary vaccines, such as for leptospira, target a zoonotic agent but are used mainly to protect pets, the exception being the New Zealand cattle vaccination programme that also aims to protect farmers; vaccines against zoonotic agents generally are not meant to protect animals in the name of public health.

Precise light was thrown on the subject by a bibliometric study covering the 2006-2009 period conducted under the European Era-Net EMIDA programme (Emerging Infectious Diseases of Animals) [ 14 ] which focused on infectious and parasitic diseases of production animals. The map generated by the study shows that animal health is situated at the intersection of other disciplinary fields such as human health, but also the health of wild animals and ecosystems, animal nutrition, animal genetics, and animal welfare. The study also demonstrates that barely 20% of the 12 000 publications on infectious diseases surveyed address zoonoses and food safety, and thus have a direct link to public health issues. This means that, in contrast, 80% of the publications address exclusively animal diseases presenting primarily economic, environmental, and animal welfare challenges. The distribution of research work on infectious and parasitic diseases at the international scale [ 15 ] according to the production animal species and pathogens involved is presented in Figure 1 .

Distribution of publications on infectious and parasitic diseases in animal health according to the livestock species (a) and pathogens (b) involved . Analysis in the framework of the European Star-Idaz project [ 15 ] of 28 750 international scientific articles published on the subject from 2006 to June 2010.

At the European level, it should be noted that an effort to prioritize issues at stake and research involving over 50 infectious and parasitic animal diseases is led by a group of experts under the aegis of Discontools (Disease Control Tools) working with the European ETPGAH platform (European Technology Platform for Global Animal Health). The first outputs may be accessed online on the Discontools web site [ 16 ].

Given the breadth of the challenges related to animal health, numerous research questions need to be explored that touch upon different domains of biology and social sciences to broaden existing knowledge, with a continuum from basic to applied research. The questions involve knowledge of pathogens, the relationship between a host (infected animal) and a pathogenic agent, as well as the interaction of pathogens and hosts at the scale of animal populations. The research to be carried out thus aims to propose tools to control the exposure of domestic animals to pathogens, reinforce the resistance of hosts to pathogenic agents (notably through vaccination), and to treat sick animals. The containment and control of diseases through control and prevention programmes also requires assessments of economic and social impacts of health management plans.

In addition to such targetted research, there is a need for fundamental research geared to producing generic knowledge on animal models. The research undertaken in this field is enriching understanding of biology thanks to comparative biology. The diversity of the model species studied, the availability of experimental mechanisms and of biological material, as well as the mastery of particular infectious models, are all important assets for this research, which produces knowledge on living organisms that does not necessarily have an immediate application, but which may prove to be very useful in the future (example of innate immunity molecules-defensins, Toll receptors-identified in invertebrates that have vaccinal and immunomodulatory applications in humans and domestic animals).

Animal health research is distinguished by particular objectives, methods, biological models and scientific questions. However, there nevertheless are areas of generic and methodological convergence with biomedical research.

First of all, livestock farming is an economic activity whose end goal is to generate revenue. In this context, animal health is one of several factors that farmers must manage; they do so by minimizing their herds' exposure to health risks and by finding the least expensive way to limit the impact of disease [ 17 ]. In a given livestock system, diseases are closely linked to the way livestock are managed, notably to parameters related to the quality of housing, nutrition, hygiene, and to animal production levels. The intensification of livestock systems that has taken place in agriculture over the past fifty years has accentuated the tension between limiting inputs, increasing production, and the risk of disease.

Over time, questions regarding livestock health have moved beyond a sole objective of achieving economic gains by reducing disease frequency to addressing the sanitary quality of products of animal origin, reducing the use of xenobiotics, and animal welfare in the interest of public health and sustainable development. The multiplicity of the challenges leads to the question of how the best balance may be achieved between these different parameters. To continue working in this direction, animal health stakeholders, whether from the perspective of research or development, need to establish close ties with livestock sciences and agricultural professionals.

To take into account these elements, population medicine on farms will be needed, as well as research on diseases that specifically recognizes the close connections between health and animal production science. This implies in-depth collaboration with other animal science disciplines on one hand, and with the various stakeholders in the livestock world on the other. The only pertinent research is that carried out in close contact with the actual practices of farmers and animal sectors. For example, within an integrated agriculture framework, integrated research on livestock health management implies solid understanding of the livestock world, requires close collaboration between animal production, genetics, livestock economics, sociology and animal health disciplines, and relies on a partnership with livestock health stakeholders.

A second distinguishing feature of animal health research is the overwhelming predominance of infectious and parasitic diseases, at least for livestock, with a very large diversity of pathologies and a very large repertoire of pathogens involved [ 18 ]. Animal health research teams consequently are obliged to study a wide variety of pathogen families, developing in the process a pool of rare and precious skills in virology, bacteriology, parasitology, and medical entomology.

A third distinguishing feature of animal health research is related to the special genetic features of livestock animals. The evolution of animal species, which results in the diversity of species, takes much longer time than phases of domestication, which result in the diversity of breeds. The intensive selection practices implemented over the past fifty years has improved production considerably, but the cost has been a sharp drop in genetic diversity among livestock [ 19 , 20 ]. A distinguishing feature of livestock systems effectively is the possibility of human intervention to select animals for particular genetic traits, most often production (for example, quantity of milk) but also resistance to disease (for example, against scrapie). To understand the genetic foundations of susceptibility to infectious diseases, the duration of co-evolution, genetic diversity, and the respective evolutionary dynamics of hosts and pathogens therefore must be taken into account. The genetic improvement of the immune response is a complex selection objective. It generally either is directed against a single target (pathogen) that is constantly evolving (due to its rapid evolutionary dynamic), or seeks a better overall immunocompetence; in either case, there tends to a negative correlation with the selection of production traits.

Animals of economic importance include species that belong to very distinct animal clades such as fish, bees, chicken, pigs, goats, sheep and cattle. These clades diverged from each other hundreds of millions of years ago. Even within mammals, the Laurasiatheria superorder, which includes ruminants and pigs, and the Euarchontoglires superorder, which includes humans and mice, diverged from each other around 100 million years ago, rendering mice and human phylogenetically closer to each other (so called supra-primates) than they are to ruminants and pigs [ 21 ]. These millions of years of separated evolution generated specific anatomical, metabolic and physiological traits, as well as specific commensal-host and pathogen-host relationships. For example, fish show particularities linked to their aquatic environment with some pathogens entering via fins [ 22 ]; they present a more primitive immune system and their cells are highly permissive to DNA transfer, allowing highly efficient DNA vaccination [ 23 ].

Whereas the basic structures and the generation mechanisms of the T cell receptors and immunoglobulins are similar from teleost fish to higher mammals, each species presents particularities, such as specific isotypes (unlike humans, mice do not secrete IgD or IgG4) and specific mechanisms of antibody diversity generation (gene conversion in chicken, hyper somatic mutations in human and mice). Notably, cytokines are specific to some species; for example, those controlling the production of type I IFN in humans and probably pigs does not exist in mice. Across species, mother to offspring transmission of pathogens and of immunity is strongly dependent on developmental characteristics related to oviparity and variations in placentation modalities. Thus whereas baby mice acquire their immunoglobulin pool during pregnancy by translocation through the placenta, ruminants acquire their immunoglobulin pool at birth via the colostrum due to the relative impermeability of their placenta.

Most basic and applied research is conducted on laboratory mice, in which some human and domestic animal diseases have been experimentally adapted. In many instances, therapeutic and prophylactic treatments that are effective in laboratory mice do no work when transposed to human and veterinary species. This lack of transposition can be explained by the specific physiological traits mentioned above and by the artificial pathological mouse models used in the laboratories. It is very important for pathogen-host interactions and novel therapeutic and prophylactic treatments to be evaluated on the targeted veterinary species, thereby studying the effect in the actual host and consequently limiting a "mouse" bias as much as possible. Research and experiments on "target" species (fish, chicken, pigs, ruminants) therefore often is necessary, and presents an advantage because the research findings may be applied directly to the species without the extra step of validating an extrapolation based on an animal model, in contrast to research undertaken for biomedical applications.

Lastly, there are special features related to the types of actions taken for animal disease control and health management. Beyond vaccination and the protection of livestock, animal health rules covering contagious diseases include a range of control methods, including at times the slaughter of animals to eliminate those posing a risk for unaffected animals and humans. These practices lead to specific research questions regarding intervention mechanisms. At the top of this list is the need to update serological tools so that vaccinated animals may be distinguished from infected animals because disease control measures are different for these two categories of animals. Another priority is the set of questions regarding the comparative economic advantage of different control methods and the conditions by which they are appropriated by livestock farmers and public officials.

While the livestock world has many other distinguishing characteristics, these do not seem to have a notable impact on the manner by which animal health research is conducted.

In addition to the aspects discussed in the preceding sections, one of the main distinguishing features of animal health research are the scientific questions pursued, which are posed from the perspective of animal, and not human, health. Consequently, even in the case of zoonotic agents, the questions asked by animal health teams are not the same as those asked by biomedical teams. In the case of zoonotic vector agents, for example, Bartonella or Borrelia agents of Lyme disease, animal health research would focus on the role of animals as reservoirs of agents potentially pathogenic for humans, and on the elements that allow the development of an infectious agent in its host reservoir versus a human. Biomedical research, on the other hand, would focus on the development of an infectious agent in a human. For prion diseases, an animal health perspective leads to studying the diversity of strains found in the animal and to an attempt to decipher the interactions between the infectious strain and the host species. More broadly, studies of pathogenic agent/host interactions that are pursued from an animal health angle often prove to be fruitful from both a pure and applied perspective. This is due in particular to the genetic knowledge generated on the infected host and the possibility of implementing protocols with an experimental cohort with a defined genetic status. This is, for example, the case with the demonstration in sheep of the modulation of susceptibility to scrapie in connection with the polymorphism of the protein prion coding gene [ 24 ].

It thus would appear that, while working on the same agents and with the same tools, the questions pursued in animal health may be different from, and complementary to, those in human biology, and lead to the production of complementary knowledge. It follows that opportunities for collaboration between animal health and biomedical teams should be pursued, each having, through the questions they pursue and their "natural" partnership networks (hospitals versus farms or the environment), access to different and complementary types of samples. For example, collaboration could focus on comparing, with an epidemiological objective, Bartonella strains sampled from humans and different animal species.

In certain fields, research carried out in human biology and animal health use similar tools, and even the same models, to address research questions. When this is the case, notably in the framework of the study of zoonotic pathogens, the only difference lies in the nature of the questions explored.

In certain circumstances, the convergence continues up to point where the biomedical and animal health teams share the same questions, and then no evident distinguishing feature remains. The development of projects initially focused on animal health progressively may lead the teams involved to pose questions that are increasingly focussed on models shared with human biology. As an illustration, we may cite fundamental research approaches to the molecular mechanisms of the invasion of cells targeted by the influenza virus, or the biological origin of prions and the determinants of the species barrier modulating their transmission capacity. In such cases, it is easy to imagine that the same research could be conducted in research laboratories unrelated to animal health. However, an animal health perspective offers certain advantages, notably expertise for extensive experimental research in a confinement area, and special links maintained through collaborations with other scientists working notably in the fields of pathogenesis and animal genetics.

The discussion presented here was conducted in relation to human biology research work. A parallel approach could be envisioned in relation to work carried out on plant health. Such an analysis may elicit a certain community of tools and methods with animal health, an advantage of comparative biology, but apparently few shared issues at stake for the pathogens of interest.

Mice often prove to be an inadequate model in physiopathological, prophylactic, and therapeutic studies for humans. This is due to the reduced size of the species, physiological considerations, and the absence of a natural corresponding pathology. With regard to the latter point, it often is necessary to infect a mouse with the human pathogen agent, and thereby create an artificial model without pertinent symptoms. In certain situations, domestic species prove to be better study models for human-oriented research. Domestic species can be infected by viruses that have co-evolved with their host. These diseases present similarities in molecular and physiopathologic mechanisms to human disorders without being zoonotic. Pigs infected by an influenza virus that has adapted to pigs thus suffer an influenza syndrome resembling that found in humans infected with a human influenza virus. Young calves infected by a respiratory syncytial virus distinct from the human virus develop a broncho-pulmonary pathology close to that of a child. These animal disorders thus allow the development of therapeutic, vaccination, and diagnostic strategies that can be adapted or extrapolated to humans.

Furthermore, through evolutionary convergence, certain domestic species present more functional similarities to humans than mice: for example, sheep for respiratory pathology (immunologic study of asthma treatment), and pigs for skin structure (study of transcutaneous therapy or vaccination), cardio-vascular diseases, and the development of spontaneous melanoma where the progression of tumors resembles that observed in humans.

Lastly, domestic animals, due to their large size, allow immune functions to be studied in an original manner that would not be possible with mice. It thus is possible to catheterize lymphatic vessels in pigs, cows, and sheep to study baseline migrant leukocyte populations directly in the lymph during an infection or vaccination, enabling certain immune response features to be monitored in real time.

For these different reasons, in-depth knowledge of domestic animal physiopathologies and the existence of high performance animal experimentation platforms are useful for biomedical research. Overall, the diversity of models (animal species) studied, the foundation of comparative biology, is important to produce general knowledge that can have diverse applications, notably in human biology.

Compared to research on pathogens affecting public health, it is notoriously difficult to find funding for research dedicated to animal health that is focussed on non-zoonotic pathogens or to publish the results in high quality scientific journals. These difficulties seem to be inversely proportional to the genericity of the knowledge produced and to its potential biomedical contribution. For example, in a call for proposals on infectious disease research, an excellent project on a non-zoonotic pathogen will systematically be eclipsed by a project addressing a topic such as hemorrhagic fevers due to the evaluators' perception of the stakes involved. Similarily, numerous human health and scientific journals that have a high impact factor due to the larger size of the scientific community involved in human biology compared to animal health, rarely accept an article on non-zoonotic agents that effectively fall outside their domain.

This state of affairs is extremely important to take into consideration given the current imperative to obtain credit to finance research and the use of the "impact factor" criteria in the scientific evaluation of research teams. This point is even more critical as the apparent proximity of animal health and human biology sectors nevertheless does not render their objectives equivalent. An overly hasty approach to the question by evaluators who are ill-informed or insufficiently aware of the issues involved will lead them to apply criteria and indicators to animal health research that are appropriated from human biology and which are completely unsuitable, and indeed unfair, in the field of animal health. Research units that address both zoonotic and non-zoonotic pathogens face a delicate situation. Teams within the same unit are not in the same boat with regard to seeking funding and publication levels.

What emerges from this analysis is that, when research of equivalent scientific quality are considered together, work on non-zoonotic diseases are financed less easily, and are published in journals with a lower impact factor, than work on zoonotic animal diseases. In a similar fashion, research on animal diseases are financed and published less easily than human biomedical research. In the absence of specific corrective action, the existence of a "species barrier" in terms of funding and publication is endangering 80% of animal health research. It thus is absolutely necessary to act far upstream of national and international research programmes by ensuring that calls for research proposals specifically mention the issues at stake in animal health on one hand, and that research organizations for their part officially adopt a policy to recognize the stakes and scientific outputs that are specifically linked to animal health.

A parallel may be drawn between the domain of research and that of disease surveillance and control. OIE officials call attention to a school of thought circulating at the international level that suggests economies of scale would be possible if veterinary medicine services were regrouped with human health facilities in each country. Along the same lines, public services such as disease surveillance are perceived to be expendable variables that may be played with to cut costs in debt-ridden countries. In the same spirit, this school of thought also advocates that only animal diseases posing risks to humans should be considered important due to their zoonotic character. In such a logic of cost-cutting and the regrouping of animal and human health spheres, financial trade-offs naturally would favour human health priorities at the expense of veterinary services.

The OIE's strategy is to take the opposing view which holds that prevention costs less than resolving crises, and that quality prevention is based on national animal health systems that can ensure appropriate surveillance, early detection, transparency, and rapid response to animal disease outbreaks and on a durable network of veterinary services endowed with a specific budget. Thus in 2006, the OIE reiterated its affirmation that veterinary services were a global public good [ 25 ]. The disastrous consequences of cutbacks in public services, and the efficacy of the preventative and global approach taken by the OIE, is leading progressively to a swing of opinion in favour of this approach. This change is visible, for example, in the international documents debated during successive forums on the control of avian influenza [ 26 ].

4.3.2. Pharmaceutic industry

Most pharmaceutical companies have subsidiaries dedicated to animal health, which is related to the fact that economic scales between animal and human health cannot be compared; as an example, sales of a human vaccine may be 20 to 50 times higher than those of a veterinary vaccine. If a choice must be made between two very different vaccine projects, even if each is a priori profitable, the human vaccine automatically will be chosen over the veterinary vaccine. In the same manner, shared services will be put at the disposal of the human vaccine project given the higher economic stakes involved. Lastly, it also is more difficult to find public funding, and thus complementary private funding, for the development of vaccines against non-zoonotic pathogens than for human vaccines. A fusion between human and animal activities would translate into the disappearance of the animal sector, or into animal models being developed only when they have a direct interest for humans. In contrast, what is shared by animal and human vaccines is an ensemble of vaccine production technology, innovations in this field and preceding research on pathogen families, cytology, certain features of immunology, all knowledge that deserves to be shared between human and animal health in the form of cooperation.

4.4. The "One World, One Health" approach

As mentioned by the Director of the OIE in an editorial [ 27 ], the "One World, One Health" approach is indispensable in the sense that " the only way to prevent all these new hazards (zoonotics) is to adapt the existing systems of health governance at world, regional and national levels in a harmonised and coordinated manner ", but " the concept "One World, One Health" should not serve as a pretext for dangerous initiatives like trying to achieve economies of scale based on purely theoretical notions worthy of a sorcerer's apprentice, such as trying to merge the Veterinary Services and the Public Health Services ". Taking this perspective, it effectively is out of the question to merge services because each must assume its functions with the resources dedicated to it and the approaches suited to its particular mission; however, it is necessary to develop collaboration, cooperation, and synergies [ 28 ]. For the past few years, there has been a concensus on this issue among the OIE, FAO, and WHO. Different discussions are underway to define ways to implement this cooperation between organisations.

The present discussion, the opinion of experts, and a critical reading of the literature has led to the following observations.

International bodies (WHO, FAO, OIE) affirm that, over and above the threat of diseases that can be transmitted to humans (zoonotic diseases), the challenges facing the field of animal health are considerable. They concern food security, economics, agriculture and associated economic activities in both industrialized and developing countries. The challenges facing animal health, beyond those posed by zoonotic diseases, overlap with those of public health and the environment, notably regarding the use of xenobiotics and the development of antibiotic resistance.

The distinguishing features of animal health research are methodological and scientific in nature. They notably pertain to special biological features of domestic species and to the interaction between humans in their practice of livestock husbandry and animals in their biology and evolution. Animal biology generally does not pursue the same scientific questions as human biology, even when the same pathogens are being studied, and the discipline is rooted in a very specific agricultural and economic context. For animal health stakeholders, whether from the perspective of research or development, finding an optimal balance between the economic profitability of a farm, animal welfare, the maintenance of animal health and the quality of products of animal origin involves close collaboration between animal husbandry sciences and the agricultural profession.

Knowledge produced by comparative biology is fed by research conducted on animal species. For example, animal models are a source of generic knowledge due to their special evolutionary features and, in certain cases, their functional similarities with humans. The diversity of the model species studied and the control of particular infectious diseases contribute greatly to the production of knowledge about living organisms.

These observations present a strong case in favor of taking into account the uniqueness of animal health research, in terms of its organization, evaluation, and funding, compared to biomedical research. If this is not done, strictly biomedical priorities will lead to the elimination, sooner or later, of quality research on non-zoonotic animal diseases. A special "treatment" of this research thus is necessary with regard to the issues at stake; specially designed calls for proposals should be dedicated to the field, the field's journal corpus should be recognized as being different from that of biomedical research, and the research should be evaluated in the light of this specific corpus.

The "One Health" approach is important insofar as it argues that the management of health requires reinforced coordination between human and animal components and, in the same manner, in-depth collaboration between biomedical and animal health research. The organization of such collaboration can only reinforce the capacity of both groups to produce relevant science, and to realize the potential of research efforts and more global approaches integrating human and animal components in federated projects.

In terms of research, this collaboration may assume different forms and take place at different levels, ranging from cooperation between teams up to the organization of research and its funding. The questions explored in animal health and human biology regarding the same zoonotic pathogen frequently are complementary. They allow scientific collaborations to be built that can respond to more general questions, and notably to address the complexity of the biological systems of certain diseases. Another form of collaboration is the establishment of calls for joint public health and animal health proposals for research on pathogens whose study and control require combined research approaches. This has been the case for research on transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, with joint animal-human calls for projects and pluridisciplinary projects in the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, France and the European Union. At a more general level, comparative biology represents a precious source of knowledge.

Baker JK, Greer WJ: Animal health: a layman's guide to disease control. 1980, IPP the Interstates Printers and publishers, Danville, Illinois

Google Scholar

Gunnarson S: Definition of health and disease in textbooks of veterinarian medicine. Animal production in Europe: The way forward in a changing world. Proc. 13th International Society of Animal Hygien, Saint-Malo, France. 2004, 105-109.

Future trends in veterinary public health. Report of a WHO Study Group. 907. WHO Technical Reports Series, World Health Organization, Geneva, 96 pp (2002), [Consulted 17 November 2010], [ http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_907.pdf ]

Editorial: Veterinary legislation is the foundation of any efficient animal health Policy. Bulletin n 4 OIE 77th General Session (2009). (consulted 31 May 2011), [ http://www.oie.int/en/publications-and-documentation/bulletins-online/ ]

Botreau R, Veissier I, Butterworth A, Bracke MBM, Keeling LJ: Definition of criteria for overall assessment of animal welfare. Anim Welf. 2007, 16: 225-228.

CAS Google Scholar

FAO-The State of Food and Agriculture 2009-Livestock in the Balance, 166pp. (consulted 9 June 2011), [ http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i0680e/i0680e00.htm ]

Thornton PK: Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2010, 365: 2853-2867. 10.1098/rstb.2010.0134.

Article PubMed Central PubMed Google Scholar

Williams RB: A compartmentalised model for the estimation of the cost of coccidiosis to the world's chicken production industry. Int J Parasitol. 1999, 29: 1209-1229. 10.1016/S0020-7519(99)00086-7.

Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar

Seegers H, Fourichon C, Beaudeau F: Production effects related to mastitis and mastitis economics in dairy cattle herds. Vet Res. 2003, 34: 475-491. 10.1051/vetres:2003027.

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Thompson D, Muriel P, Russell D, Osborne P, Bromley A, Rowland M, Creigh-Tyte S, Brown C: Economic costs of the foot and mouth disease outbreak in the United Kingdom in 2001. Rev Sci Tech. 2002, 21 (3): 675-687.

CAS PubMed Google Scholar

OIE listed diseases 2011. (consulted 31 May 2011), [ http://www.oie.int/eng/maladies/en_classification2010.htm ]

Ganière JP: Importance et hiérarchisation des zoonoses en France: le point de vue vétérinaire. Epidémiol et santé anim. 2004, 46: 27-32. (in French)

Global Early Warning and Response System for Major Animal Diseases including Zoonoses. (consulted 31 May 2011), [ http://www.glews.net/ ]

de Rycke J: World Research Landscape Mapping of European Research Organisations. A bibliometrical analysis of research output (2004-2008). EMIDA ERA-NET-Report of Wordpackage 2; 60 pp (2009). (Consulted 31 May 2011), [ http://www.emida-era.net/upload/pdf/Final%20WP2%20report%20090407.pdf ]

de Rycke J: World mapping of research institutions, topics and collaboration in the field of infectious diseases of animals; a bibliometric analysis using publication records extracted from the Web of Science (2006-2010). Report, 47 pp. 2010

Discontools: Disease Control Tools. (consulted 31 May 2011), [ http://www.discontools.eu/home/index ]

Ganière J-P, André-Fontaine G, Drouin P, Faye B, Madec F, Rosner G, Fourichon C, Wang B, Tillon J-P: L'écopathologie: une méthode d'approche de la santé en élevage. INRA Prod Anim. 1991, 4 (3): 247-256.

Timoney JF, Gillespie JH, Scott FW, Barlough JE: Microbiology and infectious diseases of domestic animals. 1988, Cornell University Press, New York, 8

Muir WM, Wong GK, Zhang Y, Wang J, Groenen MA, Crooijmans RP, Megens HJ, Zhang H, Okimoto R, Vereijken A, Jungerius A, Albers GA, Lawley CT, Delany ME, MacEachern S, Cheng HH: Genome-wide assessment of worldwide chicken SNP genetic diversity indicates significant absence of rare alleles in commercial breeds. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008, 105: 17312-17317. 10.1073/pnas.0806569105.

Article PubMed Central CAS PubMed Google Scholar

Taberlet P, Coissac E, Pansu J, Pompanon F: Conservation genetics of cattle, sheep, and goats. C R Biol. 2011, 334: 247-254. 10.1016/j.crvi.2010.12.007.

Nishihara H, Hasegawa M, Okada N: Pegasoferae, an unexpected mammalian clade revealed by tracking ancient retroposon insertions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006, 103: 9929-9934. 10.1073/pnas.0603797103.

Harmache A, Leberre M, Droineau S, Giovannini M, Brémont M: Bioluminescence imaging of live infected salmonids reveals that the fin bases are the major portal of entry for Novirhabdovirus. J Virol. 2006, 80 (7): 3655-3659. 10.1128/JVI.80.7.3655-3659.2006.

Boudinot P, Blanco M, de Kinkelin P, Benmansour A: Combined DNA immunization with the glycoprotein gene of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus and infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus induces double-specific protective immunity and nonspecific response in rainbow trout. Virology. 1998, 249 (2): 297-306. 10.1006/viro.1998.9322.

Goldmann W: PrP genetics in ruminant transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Vet Res. 2008, 39 (4): 30-10.1051/vetres:2008010.

Editorial: Prevention, detection and monitoring of animal diseases, including those harmful to humans: veterinary services are the keystone of the global system. Bulletin n°3 Evaluation and support of Veterinary Services (2006). (consulted 31 May 2011), [ http://www.oie.int/en/publications-and-documentation/bulletins-online/ ]

The FAO-OIE-WHO Collaboration sharing responsibilities and coordinating global activities to address health risks at the animal-human-ecosystems interfaces. FAO-OIE-WHO Collaboration Concept Note on health risks at the human-animal interface (2010). (consulted 31 May 2011), [ http://www.oie.int/en/for-the-media/press-releases/detail/article/fao-oie-who-collaboration-concept-note-on-health-risks-at-the-human-animal-interface-is-available-on/ ]

Editorial: One World, One Health. OIE Bulletin n° 2 One World, One Health (2009). (Consulted 1 May 2011), [ http://www.oie.int/en/publications-and-documentation/bulletins-online/ ]

Coker R, Rushton J, Mounier-Jack S, Karimuribo E, Lutumba P, Kambarage D, Pfeiffer DU, Stärk K, Rweyemamu M: Towards a conceptual framework to support one-health research for policy on emerging zoonoses. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011, 11: 326-331. 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70312-1.

Download references

The authors are deeply grateful to Claude Leclerc (Institut Pasteur), Alain Dehove, Elisabeth Erlacher-Vindel, Kasuaki Miyagishima (OIE), Jean-Christophe Audonnet, Michel Bublot, Catherine Charreyre, François Xavier Le Gros, Pascal Hudelet (Société Merial), for their contributions to this collective discussion, as well as Bernard Charley, Jean De Rycke, Michel Fougereau, Pierre Lekeux, Henri Salmon, Henri Seegers and Etienne Thiry for their critical reading of the initial report.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

INRA, UR346 Epidémiologie animale, 63122, Saint Genès Champanelle, France

Christian Ducrot

INRA, UMR1313 Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative, 78352, Jouy-en-Josas Cedex, France

Bertrand Bed'Hom

INRA, UR892 Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, 78352, Jouy-en-Josas, France

Vincent Béringue & Isabelle Schwartz-Cornil

INRA, Département PHASE, 63122, Saint Genès Champanelle, France

Jean-Baptiste Coulon

ONIRIS-INRA, UMR1300 Bioagression, Épidémiologie et Analyse de risque, Atlanpole La Chantrerie, BP 40706, 44307, Nantes Cedex 3, France

Christine Fourichon & Stéphane Krebs

ENVT-INRA, UMR1225 IHAP Interactions hôtes-agents pathogènes, 23 chemin des Capelles, 31076, Toulouse Cedex, France

Jean-Luc Guérin

INRA, UR1282 IASP Infectiologie animale et santé publique, 37380, Nouzilly, France

Pascal Rainard

INRA, UMR1323 RiTME, 65 Boulevard de Brandebourg, 94205, Ivry-sur-Seine, France

Didier Torny

INRA, USC Bartonella et Tiques, ANSES, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, F-94700, Maisons-Alfort, France

Muriel Vayssier-Taussat

ENVA-ANSES-INRA, UMR1161 Virologie, 7 avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94704, Maisons Alfort Cedex, France

Stephan Zientara

INRA, Département de santé animale, 37380, Nouzilly, France

Etienne Zundel

INRA, Département de santé animale, BP 93173, 31027, Toulouse Cedex 3, France

Thierry Pineau

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christian Ducrot .

Additional information

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

All authors participated in the collective discussion on the special issues of animal health research, search for bibliography and participated in the writing of the paper in their field of competence; more precisely, VB, JLG, PR, ISC, MVT, SZ and EZ were involved in the field of microbiology, ISC in immunology, CF and CD in epidemiology, BB in genetics, JBC and EZ in animal sciences, SK in economics, DT in sociology. CD, CF and SK were involved in the discussion with scientists from OIE, CD, CF and SZ with Société Merial, ISC, SZ and MVT with Institut Pasteur. TP and CD designed the work and defined the working group. CD chaired the discussions and coordinated the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ original submitted files for images

Below are the links to the authors’ original submitted files for images.

Authors’ original file for figure 1

Rights and permissions.

This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Ducrot, C., Bed'Hom, B., Béringue, V. et al. Issues and special features of animal health research. Vet Res 42 , 96 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-42-96

Download citation

Received : 08 June 2011

Accepted : 24 August 2011

Published : 24 August 2011

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-42-96

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Animal Health
Avian Influenza
Lyme Disease
Animal Disease

Veterinary Research

ISSN: 1297-9716

General enquiries: [email protected]

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

View all journals

Animal biotechnology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Animal biotechnology is a branch of biotechnology in which molecular biology techniques are used to genetically engineer (i.e. modify the genome of) animals in order to improve their suitability for pharmaceutical, agricultural or industrial applications. Animal biotechnology has been used to produce genetically modified animals that synthesize therapeutic proteins, have improved growth rates or are resistant to disease.

Related Subjects

Genetic engineering

Latest Research and Reviews

Expanding the CRISPR base editing toolbox in Drosophila melanogaster

Testing three types of cytosine base editors in fruit flies demonstrates the potential usage of these base editors in genetic biocontrol strategies, with the rAPO-1 achieving high editing efficiency (~99%) with no detectable INDEL mutations.

Michael Clark
Christina Nguyen
Víctor López Del Amo

Production of a heterozygous exon skipping model of common marmosets using gene-editing technology

This study shows that using gene-editing technology in oocytes using Platinum TALEN is an effective method for producing genetically modified marmosets by exon skipping.

Hiroki Sasaguri
Erika Sasaki

Enhancing early identification of high-fertile cattle females using infrared blood serum spectra and machine learning

Willian Reis
Thiago Franca
Cicero Cena

Induction of trained immunity in broiler chickens following delivery of oligodeoxynucleotide containing CpG motifs to protect against Escherichia coli septicemia

Iresha Subhasinghe
Khawaja Ashfaque Ahmed
Susantha Gomis

Altering traits and fates of wild populations with Mendelian DNA sequence modifying Allele Sails

Population-scale genome modification can alter the composition or fate of wild populations. Here the authors introduce Allele Sails as a method for spreading genetic changes throughout a population.

Michelle L. Johnson
Bruce A. Hay
Maciej Maselko

Enhanced repellent and anti-nutritional activities of polymeric nanoparticles containing essential oils against red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum

Fatemeh Khandehroo
Gholamhossein Moravvej
Hossein Ahmadzadeh

News and Comment

An innovative, sustainable, no-kill sea urchin aquaculture method

We present a sea urchin aquaculture method called raking. Unlike traditional methods in which the entire gonad is the final product, thereby requiring sea urchin killing, eggs are the final product in raking. As killing of sea urchins is not necessary, several production cycles are possible with this method, enabling sustainable echinoculture.

Beef paddies

An article in Matter uses rice grains as scaffolds for cultivated beef cells to produce an innovative beef-infused rice.

Ariane Vartanian

How biofabrication can accelerate cultured meat’s path to market

The production of conventional meat contributes to climate change and uses up around 70% of available arable land. Cultured meat is emerging as a potential solution, but presently can be only produced at the pilot scale. Biofabrication technologies developed for biomedical applications could be leveraged to introduce automation and standardization in the production of cultured meat, accelerating its path to market.

Simon Heine
Tilman Ahlfeld
Petra J. Kluger

Sir Ian Wilmut 1944–2023

Alan Trounson
Jose Cibelli

Rapid-response manufacturing of adenovirus-vectored vaccines

Carina C. D. Joe
Nitin Chopra
Alexander D. Douglas

Evolutionary divergence impact on de-extinction

Lin et al. explore the impact of evolutionary divergence on de-extinction efforts that use genome editing using the extinct Christmas Island rat.

Quick links

Explore articles by subject
Guide to authors
Editorial policies

UConn Library
Animal Science Subject Guide
Research Topics

Animal Science Subject Guide — Research Topics

Starting Your Research Project
Searching Scholarly Databases
Encyclopedias & Handbooks
Finding Books
Other Information Sources
Useful Tools

Narrowing a topic

Sometimes narrowing to a specific topic does not come naturally and can be a difficult task. Here are some techniques available to make this process simpler.

First, pick a topic in which you are interested. You will spend a lot of time with your topic and you will do a better job with it if you find the topic enjoyable. As you search through potential topics, note which pique your interest and follow them further.
Look for a topic with some recent controversy or a set of related topics which can be compared and contrasted.
Pick a topic which you have some hope of understanding. If you cannot understand the basics you will not be able to write about it. Not all topics are appropriate for undergraduate paper writing.

Some additional sites with help on choosing and narrowing topics are listed below.

Choosing and Narrowing a Topic
Narrowing a Topic
Narrowing a Topic and Developing a Research Question
Identifying when a Topic is Too Narrow or Too Broad

Where to find possible topics for science papers

If you don't know on what topic you want to write a paper, start by looking in sources with broad spreads of relevant information.

Search any database by a particular journal or review journal (Science, Nature, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, etc.)
Look for a classic topic in your textbook
Scan popular science sciences magazines such as Bioscience, Scientific American, Discover, etc.
Go to the popular website www.sciencedaily.com which covers most aspects of science and search for a topic
Search for ideas in the encyclopedias, handbooks or other books listed in this guide on a separate page
If you have some idea of a topic, search for review articles on that topic in one of the science databases listed in this guide
Search the table of contents of a journal which specializes in review articles, such as Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Search Strategies for Topics

Part of picking a topic will involve conducting literature searches. As you search for your topic(s) start with searches as BROAD as possible, while remaining relevant to your topic. Starting broad will give a breadth of coverage that allows you easy options for narrowing your topic. If you start with a narrow topic it is much harder to broaden your topic later to explore more options.

Describe your topic in a sentence.

How did carnivorous plants evolve digestive enzymes?

What are your major concepts? Identify the main elements of your topic.

Concept 1	Evolution
Concept 2	Carnivorous plants
Concept 3	Digestive enzymes

Think of related terms for your concepts. Use both common words and scientific terms.

		Synonyms	Synonyms	Synonyms	Synonyms
Concept 1	Evolution	Convergent evolution
Concept 2	Carnivorous plants	Cephalotus follicularis (Australian pitcher plant)	Nepenthes alata (Asian pitcher plant)	Sarracenia purpurea (American pitcher plant)	Drosera adelae (Sundew)
Concept 3	Digestive enzymes	Chitanase	Purple acid phosphatase	RNase T2

Add Boolean Operators (AND & OR) to structure the search in a database search interface.

		Synonyms	Synonyms	Synonyms	Synonyms
Concept 1	Evolution	Convergent evolution

Concept 2	Carnivorous plants	Cephalotus follicularis Australian pitcher plant	Nepenthes alata Asian pitcher plant	Sarracenia purpurea American pitcher plant	Drosera adelae Sundew

Concept 3	Digestive enzymes	Citanase	Purple acid phosphatase	RNase T2

<< Previous: Starting Your Research Project
Next: Searching Scholarly Databases >>
Last Updated: Aug 29, 2024 11:41 AM
URL: https://guides.lib.uconn.edu/animalscienceresources

Ethical care for research animals

WHY ANIMAL RESEARCH?

The use of animals in some forms of biomedical research remains essential to the discovery of the causes, diagnoses, and treatment of disease and suffering in humans and in animals., stanford shares the public's concern for laboratory research animals..

Many people have questions about animal testing ethics and the animal testing debate. We take our responsibility for the ethical treatment of animals in medical research very seriously. At Stanford, we emphasize that the humane care of laboratory animals is essential, both ethically and scientifically. Poor animal care is not good science. If animals are not well-treated, the science and knowledge they produce is not trustworthy and cannot be replicated, an important hallmark of the scientific method .

There are several reasons why the use of animals is critical for biomedical research:

• Animals are biologically very similar to humans. In fact, mice share more than 98% DNA with us!

• Animals are susceptible to many of the same health problems as humans – cancer, diabetes, heart disease, etc.

• With a shorter life cycle than humans, animal models can be studied throughout their whole life span and across several generations, a critical element in understanding how a disease processes and how it interacts with a whole, living biological system.

The ethics of animal experimentation

Nothing so far has been discovered that can be a substitute for the complex functions of a living, breathing, whole-organ system with pulmonary and circulatory structures like those in humans. Until such a discovery, animals must continue to play a critical role in helping researchers test potential new drugs and medical treatments for effectiveness and safety, and in identifying any undesired or dangerous side effects, such as infertility, birth defects, liver damage, toxicity, or cancer-causing potential.

U.S. federal laws require that non-human animal research occur to show the safety and efficacy of new treatments before any human research will be allowed to be conducted. Not only do we humans benefit from this research and testing, but hundreds of drugs and treatments developed for human use are now routinely used in veterinary clinics as well, helping animals live longer, healthier lives.

It is important to stress that 95% of all animals necessary for biomedical research in the United States are rodents – rats and mice especially bred for laboratory use – and that animals are only one part of the larger process of biomedical research.

Our researchers are strong supporters of animal welfare and view their work with animals in biomedical research as a privilege.

Stanford researchers are obligated to ensure the well-being of all animals in their care..

Stanford researchers are obligated to ensure the well-being of animals in their care, in strict adherence to the highest standards, and in accordance with federal and state laws, regulatory guidelines, and humane principles. They are also obligated to continuously update their animal-care practices based on the newest information and findings in the fields of laboratory animal care and husbandry.

Researchers requesting use of animal models at Stanford must have their research proposals reviewed by a federally mandated committee that includes two independent community members. It is only with this committee’s approval that research can begin. We at Stanford are dedicated to refining, reducing, and replacing animals in research whenever possible, and to using alternative methods (cell and tissue cultures, computer simulations, etc.) instead of or before animal studies are ever conducted.

Organizations and Resources

There are many outreach and advocacy organizations in the field of biomedical research.

Learn more about outreach and advocacy organizations

Two researchers in lab looking through microscopes

Stanford Discoveries

What are the benefits of using animals in research? Stanford researchers have made many important human and animal life-saving discoveries through their work.

Learn more about research discoveries at Stanford

Small brown mouse - Stanford research animal

10 September 2024: Due to technical disruption, we are experiencing some delays to publication. We are working to restore services and apologise for the inconvenience. For further updates please visit our website: https://www.cambridge.org/universitypress/about-us/news-and-blogs/cambridge-university-press-publishing-update-following-technical-disruption

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .

Login Alert

< Back to search results
Animal Health Research Reviews

Animal Health Research Reviews

Submit your article

This journal utilises an Online Peer Review Service (OPRS) for submissions. By clicking "Continue" you will be taken to our partner site http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ahrr . Please be aware that your Cambridge account is not valid for this OPRS and registration is required. We strongly advise you to read all "Author instructions" in the "Journal information" area prior to submitting.

Information
Journal home
Journal information
Accepted manuscripts
Latest issue
FirstView articles
Open access articles
Collections

From 8th December 2023, Animal Health Research Reviews will be moving to a Gold Open Access publishing model. All accepted articles from this date will be published with a Creative Commons licence and will be subject to an Article Processing Charge (see the journal's Open Access Options page for available licence options). Many corresponding authors will have their APC covered by a transformative agreement; check here to see if your institution is covered. Any author without funding or not covered by a transformative agreement can apply for a waiver.

Please see the journal's Open Access Options page for instructions on how to request an APC waiver.

See this FAQ for more information.

You have access: full Access: Full
Open access

ISSN: 1466-2523 (Print) , 1475-2654 (Online)
Editors: R. W. Stich The University of Missouri, USA , and C. Gyles University of Guelph, Canada
Editorial board

Latest articles

Recent advances in the use of bacterial probiotics in animal production.

Alberto Gonçalves Evangelista , Jessica Audrey Feijó Corrêa , Anne Caroline Marques Schoch Pinto , Francieli Dalvana Ribeiro Gonçalves , Fernando Bittencourt Luciano
Animal Health Research Reviews , First View

AHR volume 24 issue 1 Cover and Front matter

Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 24 , Issue 1

Evidence that ectoparasites influence the hematological parameters of the host: a systematic review

Bárbara Cristina Félix Nogueira , Elaine da Silva Soares , Andrés Mauricio Ortega Orozco , Leandro Abreu da Fonseca , Artur Kanadani Campos

Essential oils and essential oil compounds in animal production as antimicrobials and anthelmintics: an updated review

Eduardo Henrique Custódio Matté , Fernando Bittencourt Luciano , Alberto Gonçalves Evangelista

Alternatives to antibiotics in veterinary medicine: considerations for the management of Johne's disease

Laura M. O'Connell , Aidan Coffey , Jim M. O'Mahony

Applications of butyric acid in poultry production: the dynamics of gut health, performance, nutrient utilization, egg quality, and osteoporosis – CORRIGENDUM

Mohamed T. El-Saadony , Muhammad Umar Yaqoob , Faiz-ul Hassan , Mahmoud Alagawany , Muhammad Arif , Ayman E. Taha , Shaaban S. Elnesr , Khaled A. El-Tarabily , Mohamed E. Abd El-Hack

AHR volume 23 issue 2 Cover and Front matter

Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 23 , Issue 2

Dietary fiber and its role in performance, welfare, and health of pigs

Ł. Grześkowiak , E.-M. Saliu , B. Martínez-Vallespín , J. R. Aschenbach , G. A. Brockmann , M. Fulde , S. Hartmann , B. Kuhla , R. Lucius , C. C. Metges , H. J. Rothkötter , W. Vahjen , A. G. Wessels , J. Zentek

Animal Health Research Reviews Blog

Antibiotics in animals: more research urgently needed

02 March 2020, Jan M. Sargeant
Resistance to antibiotics has been declared a global health emergency – and it’s not just humans who are impacted by this public health crisis.…

CRWAD twitter

Call for applications for the AHRR EiC position

Escherichia coli in postweaning diarrhea in pigs: an update on bacterial types, pathogenesis, and prevention strategies

John M. Fairbrother , Éric Nadeau , Carlton L. Gyles
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 6 , Issue 1

Veterinary Public Health - Science topic

Recruit researchers
Join for free
Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

About the Hub
Announcements
Faculty Experts Guide
Subscribe to the newsletter

Explore by Topic

Arts+Culture
Politics+Society
Science+Technology
Student Life
University News
Voices+Opinion
About Hub at Work
Gazette Archive
Benefits+Perks
Health+Well-Being
Current Issue
About the Magazine
Past Issues
Support Johns Hopkins Magazine
Subscribe to the Magazine

You are using an outdated browser. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience.

Credit: Shout

Reimagining alternatives to animal testing

Artificial intelligence and organoid advances hold new promise for reducing the number of laboratory animals used in studies..

By Jack McGovan

A round 348 B.C., Aristotle took a two-year trip to the eastern Aegean island of Lesbos to study animals in a lagoon. Along with observing the creatures in their natural habitat and surmising, among other things, that dolphins were not fish, he dissected smaller animals to try and understand their internal workings. When he cut open eels, abundant in the lagoon, he was puzzled to find no evidence of reproductive tissue and made the false assumption that they generated spontaneously from the mud.

Aristotle's dissections were some of the first documented experiments on animals. Initially a practice aimed at understanding anatomy, these experiments evolved as biology and medicine progressed. For example, the Roman physician Galen of Pergamon developed techniques for dissection and vivisection of animals, which informed his treatises on medicine that remained canonical until the 14th century, when the Renaissance began in Italy.

It wasn't until the late 1930s that rigorous animal testing became a standard part of the drug development process . A U.S. pharmaceutical company had created an elixir with a raspberry aroma that promised to work as an antibiotic. The solution contained diethylene glycol. Unbeknownst to the company's chief chemist, the chemical proved poisonous to humans, and over 100 people died after the elixir hit store shelves. The resulting outcry led to the passage of the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which required that drugs be tested on animals before being marketed.

Without animal testing, many of the medicines and procedures we take for granted wouldn't exist today. Transplantation of skin, corneas, and internal organs became possible owing to knowledge acquired through experimentation on animals. And polio—the devastating, paralysis-causing virus that was once one of the most feared diseases in the world—has been nearly eradicated because of a vaccine that was developed through experiments on monkeys. The number of drugs failing to make it to market that have passed animal testing reached an all-time high of 95% in 2021.

Today, animals continue to be widely used in the biomedical sciences. One paper published in Sage Journals found that 79.9 million animals were used in scientific procedures in 2015, an estimated 37% increase from 2005. There have also been unprecedented levels of funding in drug development in the last decade. However, the number of drugs failing to make it to market that have passed animal testing reached an all-time high of 95% in 2021, according to a review paper in the journal Nature . Thomas Hartung , a professor of toxicology and director of the Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, wants better science—and more options.

Sometimes the consequences of animal experiments can go beyond a couple of failed experiments. In France in 2016, six people were hospitalized and one man died during a clinical trial. The drug in question had been tested in mice, rats, dogs, and monkeys with dosages 400 times stronger than those given to the human volunteers, and no ill effects were recorded.

Hartung's research has found that there are cases where animal models may no longer be necessary. In a paper published in a 2018 edition of the journal Toxicological Sciences , he and his team found they were able to predict—using a computer model that combed through a massive chemical hazard database—whether a particular chemical would be toxic to humans in more cases than animal models could. "The publication was a turning point," says the German-born Hartung, who has led the center since 2009.

The finding effectively put the center at the heart of a revolution in toxicology to move away from decades-old animal tests to the use of artificial intelligence and organoid cultures, 3D tissue models grown from stem cells programmed to mimic a specific organ. In the not-so-distant future, Hartung hopes, this emerging and quickly evolving technology and science could render many animal tests a remnant of the past.

T hat 2018 paper was a breakthrough in the use of machine learning to approach toxicology. One of Hartung's PhD students had built a database that could be used to predict—better than animal models could—how toxic a certain chemical would be to humans. More than 10,000 chemicals and their properties, provided by the European Chemical Agency, were reviewed.

The structure of a chemical determines whether it would be toxic to humans. So, when researchers want to determine the toxicology of a chemical, they can look at those with a similar structure known to produce a negative reaction. Manually assessing each chemical on a case-by-case basis would be time consuming, limiting its usefulness. What the researchers at the center, known as CAAT, did was to automate and accelerate that process, using big data to examine potential human interactions such as acute oral and dermal toxicity, eye and skin irritation, and mutagenicity (ability to induce a genetic mutation).

Computational tools are just one of the ways Hartung and other researchers at CAAT are attempting to move away from animal testing. The lab where Hartung is based is filled with brains, and that's not a reference to the staff located there. Little clumps of brain tissue, barely visible to the human eye, are grown in incubators every week by the thousands. Referred to as organoids, these clumps of tissue can't think or feel, but they can be used to see how brain cells respond to stimuli in a lab setting.

Brain organoids are made from pluripotent stem cells, which can produce any cell or tissue a body may need. The cells are placed in a matrix that helps them connect with each other and form larger tissues. They're then added to an incubator and allowed to grow for eight weeks, at which point they are essentially miniaturized, 3D versions of organs able to be used for testing. "Once you have mastered production, it is a very robust and reasonably cheap process," Hartung says.

By combining brain organoids with AI, Hartung hopes to develop what he calls organoid intelligence, a major step forward "to make brain cell cultures do what the [human] brain is supposed to." Although it is currently still science fiction, he says, the organoid intelligence project (running since January 2023) recently produced a technical paper describing how to build such a system.

Hartung moved to the United States in 2009 to take over from Alan Goldberg as director at CAAT. Founded in 1981 with a $1 million grant from the Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association, the center and its researchers for the next few decades worked to harness scientific advances, such as in vitro experiments using human cell lines, where once mice and rats were used. Advances in biostatistics and computer modeling of biological systems enabled researchers to construct experiments using only a fraction of the animals they would otherwise have needed.

When Hartung arrived, the center was "an information hub of six people" down by Baltimore's Inner Harbor. He promptly moved activities to the university, under the auspices of the Bloomberg School of Public Health, because he wanted to have a larger lab space and students to work with. Today, CAAT involves more than 30 researchers. His background, he says, has also helped bring some diversity to the center. "We have an unusual number of expats and people from all over the world," he says.

Alternatives to animal testing would get a real boost when the COVID-19 pandemic hit. Scientists were desperate for answers, and fast, so they turned to nonanimal models to understand the virus. Similarly, researchers had to dramatically cut down the time it took to develop a vaccine, typically in the range of five to 10 years. "I'm not saying that animal studies don't give us good answers, but they're expensive and lengthy, and they're not for something that you need answers quickly on," says Suzanne Fitzpatrick, a toxicologist at the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.

In the years since, there has been growing support for alternatives to animal testing. Maryland became the first state to require animal testing labs to contribute money to nonanimal research. Monica Bertagnolli, the director of the National Institutes of Health, announced in February that it would prioritize the development and use of combinatorial NAMs. NAMs refers to new approach methods, another term for alternatives to animal testing.

Image credit : Shout

In January 2023, the FDA Modernization Act took things a step further, declaring that animal testing was no longer required as evidence before clinical trials.

CAAT recently announced that it would collaborate with the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition to discuss and share the latest developments in the field of animal testing alternatives. "There's so many papers coming out now in this area, it's hard to keep up with the science," Fitzpatrick says. The collaboration, she says, makes it easier for scientists to keep up with advances while "we're still doing our regular jobs."

Soon, Fitzpatrick expects "more and more methods coming in that might be of use to the FDA" as nonanimal models mature. But, she cautions, "I don't think we're at the point where we're not going to have animal testing."

Of the $42 billion of funding the NIH awarded in 2020, 47% went to projects based on animal testing. But it should be pointed out that there are many laws, regulations, and policies that protect animals used in federally funded research. According to the National Institutes of Health, these protections include considering nonanimal alternatives to meet the scientific objectives and using the fewest subjects needed for thorough and repeatable results. They also outline standards that reflect a commitment to animal care.

In short, animals are still a vital part of science and public health. Reporting in Fast Company from earlier this year highlighted a shortage of long-tailed macaques during the COVID-19 pandemic. A panel assembled by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded that a lack of nonhuman primates in research would "severely limit the ability of National Institutes of Health–supported research programs to respond adequately to public health emergencies, as well as to carry out high-impact biomedical research."

The panel also said: "While no model, animal or otherwise, can fully mimic the complexities of the human body, there remain research questions that currently cannot be answered outside of the context of a living organism."

"In an animal, you have the systemic interaction of multiple organs, says Eva-Maria Dehne, a senior scientist at TissUse, a biotechnology company in Germany. "This is what you need to replace [animal models]." Her work focuses on organ-on-a-chip systems, small chips roughly the size of a computer memory stick. Organoids are added to chambers on the chips, lined with canals along which liquid can flow, mimicking blood vessels. Valves allow researchers to control the rate of flow.

Different chips can be connected so that a researcher could, for example, end up with a brain-heart-liver system. TissUse develops these organ-on-a-chip systems and sells them to researchers in the biomedical field.

Dehne, who was initially interested in the field owing to an ethical opposition to animal testing, has become more and more convinced by the scientific arguments to move away from the practice.

In making the case for nonanimal testing, Hartung thinks it's best to focus on arguments around efficiency. He adds that in his experience people tend not to respond positively to ethical arguments. When you highlight the efficiency of alternatives, that can open more doors. Data suggests that organ-on-a-chip systems could reduce research and development costs by 26%. "It is much more powerful than saying you have to protect these animals," he says.

Dehne worked with others on a brain-to-liver chip to test the blood-brain barrier permeation of the drugs atenolol and propranolol, the results of which were published in the journal Cells in 2022. Not only did the drugs match the results from human clinical trials, so, too, did the metabolites. In another paper, cosmetic ingredients were tested on a skin-liver-thyroid chip, with results predicting safe dosages within a fraction of current safety standards.

Researchers from Columbia University tested the cancer drug doxorubicin on a heart-liver-bone-skin chip, which matched the results found from clinical trials of the drug. Emulate, a spinoff from Harvard's Wyss Institute that is also developing organ-on-a-chip systems, works with top pharmaceutical companies, such as AstraZeneca, Johnson & Johnson, and Roche.

Hartung says the main message he wants to get across is that today there are simply fewer reasons—scientifically, economically, and ethically—to keep experimenting on animals to the same degree as we have done historically. In his view, "it is time to complement and then to replace the animal tests where we can do better," he says.

There are, however, still a lot of technological hurdles to cross before nonanimal testing can become more prevalent. Unless organoid intelligence, or something similar, comes to fruition, running experiments that involve a conscious response may always have to be done on animals. For example, if testing the effects of a pain relief drug, you need a conscious being.

Organ-on-a-chip systems are also quite complex, and that limits their usefulness. Chengpeng Chen, an assistant professor of analytical chemistry at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, has experienced that firsthand. He remembers setting up a chip system, but when it came to adding the cells, they were either contaminated or hadn't grown properly, and so he had to discard the whole configuration. "It takes days to have a setup ready," he says. "Any mistake or any problem in any of the steps can mess up the whole setup."

Chen himself is running a lab focused on organ-on-a-chip systems. One of his aims is to try and make the use of these alternatives to animal testing easier. "A lab has to have very well-trained personnel to fabricate and maintain such organs-on-a-chip," Chen says. If we want the technology to be more widely used, then it must become easier to handle. Focusing on gains in efficiency in lieu of accessibility, while still useful, will mean the technology remains largely in academia, he says.

W hen Hartung went to Germany's University of Tübingen in the 1980s, animal testing was the norm. "I really needed a big glass of whiskey in the evening when I had done an experiment on mice and rats," he says. Feeling uneasy with the prospect of a career in a field where he had to keep testing on animals, Hartung managed to convince his mentor at the time to let him run experiments on cell cultures instead.

"I got a lot of feedback from some fellow scientists who told me: 'How can you waste your beautiful career with this alternative nonsense?'" he says. Nevertheless, Hartung continued with his research into cell cultures until, in 1996, he made a breakthrough when he designed an in vitro version of a pyrogen test—a test, traditionally done on rabbits, to find out whether a product is clean of bacterial contamination.

Ecstatic to have made a contribution that could save animal lives, Hartung was disappointed when the test was finally approved in 2006 alongside a host of others with the same function. Almost nobody seemed interested in adopting them. "The appetite by both the regulators and the regulated industry to make changes is often not very big," Hartung says.

One moment that really highlighted this resistance to change for Hartung was when he was on a panel discussing his pyrogen test. An employee from a big pharmaceutical company opposed the test "harshly," yet away from the spotlight, in the safety of a private conversation, the employee said he thought the test was good; it's just that his company had taken the stance to oppose it as it might impact their profits.

A 2022 paper published in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine noted that the beneficial effects of "tissue plasminogen activator for stroke had been well documented in animal models by 2001, but research using several thousand animals continued for several years afterward." An analysis published in BMJ Open in 2020 found that most stroke researchers recognized that animal models had not been successful in the field, yet they were reluctant to relinquish them. The analysis looked at opinion papers published in journals from 1979 to 2018 and found that only one author out of 80 had advocated for alternatives to animal testing.

Others, however, seem to be embracing alternatives. Last year, CAAT, together with TissUse, organized a conference in Berlin based on alternatives to animal testing. Hartung said that while they initially expected around 700–1,000 guests, the capacity of 1,300 was reached months before the conference occurred.

In situ with Thomas Hartung

Could ai put an end to animal testing, could the next blockbuster drug be lab-rat free, fda no longer needs to require animal tests before human drug trials.

CAAT recently received $17 million for a seven-year project called IMPACT. With the money, Hartung and his team hope to further refine the alternatives to animal testing they've developed and create the Human Exposome Project, a database cataloging chemical exposures a person might face over their lifetime, along with potential harmful side effects.

Dehne thinks the community building around nonanimal models is great, and she is happy that more companies and researchers are entering the space. "There will never be one system that can answer all the questions, and therefore there will always be a need for different systems," she says.

Hartung has a similar view. "We're trying to form communities, … hundreds of people ultimately collaborating because they buy in" to the mission, he says. "It's more important that things are being done than who does them."

Fitzpatrick from the FDA says that alternatives to animal testing will likely help reduce the number of animals used but not necessarily fully replace them. She suggests that alternatives could be used to study a particular chemical, so researchers would have a better understanding of what to look for in animal tests, meaning fewer overall tests, and therefore fewer test subjects, would be necessary. "Our responsibility is to put safe and effective products on the market—not ending animal testing," she said. "So, we have to do that however we can."

Almost three decades after Hartung designed his pyrogen test, the European Union finally decided to outlaw the industry standard rabbit pyrogen test by 2026. "If you would have told me as a young postdoc how long this might take, I probably would have gone into another field," he says. Though the U.S. is still lagging in that regard, Hartung is enjoying the moment of having finally pushed through a replacement that he says could save up to 170,000 rabbits from unnecessary suffering every year.

Jack McGovan is a freelance writer based in Berlin.

Posted in Science+Technology

Tagged organoids

News network.

Johns Hopkins Magazine
Get Email Updates
Submit an Announcement
Submit an Event
Privacy Statement
Accessibility

Discover JHU

About the University
Schools & Divisions
Academic Programs
Plan a Visit
my.JohnsHopkins.edu
University Communications
3910 Keswick Rd., Suite N2600, Baltimore, MD
X Facebook LinkedIn YouTube Instagram

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
Neuropsychopharmacology
v.44(8); 2019 Jul

The critical importance of basic animal research for neuropsychiatric disorders

Tracy l. bale.

1 Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry, Center for Epigenetic Research in Child Health and Brain Development, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA

2 Department of Pharmacology and Iowa Neuroscience Institute, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA USA

3 Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI USA

William A. Carlezon Jr.

4 McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA USA

Bita Moghaddam

5 Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR USA

Eric J. Nestler

6 Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA

Kerry J. Ressler

7 Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA USA

Scott M. Thompson

8 Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA

The challenges and critical importance of keeping our thinking about neuropsychiatric disorders mechanisms and classifications up-to-date have prompted a dynamic discourse as to the value, appropriateness, and reliability of the animal models we use and the outcomes we measure. At a time when most major pharmaceutical companies are disbanding their research and development in neuroscience and mental health programs, academia is the remaining bastion for the identification and validation of novel drug targets and the development of novel therapeutic approaches. The 2018 ACNP meeting provided the ideal audience for a discussion centered on this topic, offering a professional setting in which diverse viewpoints could be presented, and allowing voices from all arenas of basic and translational neuroscience to be heard. At its core, there is a growing and healthy discussion about the degree of confidence we have that our preclinical animal models and their behavioral endpoints can predict the success of new drugs in clinical trials. While it is clear that we cannot completely model complex neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders in animals, there is certainly agreement across domain criteria and endophenotypes of disease that have proven informative, particularly when multiple levels of outcome measures, including genomics, epigenomics, cellular properties, circuits, network dynamics, and behaviors are included. This issue is now of critical importance with the arrival of big ‘omics data sets that provide novel and informative insights about genetic risk and molecular pathophysiology. How can we best examine these insights into disease risk and resilience using preclinical measures? Similarly, while genome-wide association studies and genome sequencing studies provide valuable clues into the genes and pathways that are associated with disease risk, how can we determine how these loci interact with each other as well as with the environment to assess their importance across developmental and life stages? Most importantly, we seek to identify ways to develop novel therapeutic approaches to improve the lives of those with neuropsychiatric disorders including those of neurodevelopmental origins, a challenge that remains even after decades of intensive research.

How do we go from results focused on genes, cells, and behaviors in rodents and other animal models to much more complex and heterogeneous syndromes in humans? How do we control for the variables across labs and between species and mouse strains that make interpretation or translation difficult? At the cellular level, utilization of human inducible pluripotent stem cells, induced neuron-like cells, and organoids for phenotypic characterization including migration assays and electrophysiology provide an important compliment to animal models [ 1 ]. For example, genetic networks may be well preserved, facilitating the study of the epistasis of multiple risk factor genes, each conferring low effect on disease etiology. How closely these cells recreate aspects of human disease conditions is a critical question remaining to be answered, however. Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge that such cells are necessarily studied under highly artificial conditions, often lacking well-established critical disease risk factors, and where the relevant environmental and cellular interactions are not known. Certainly, the outcomes that can be measured with these approaches will remain far from the symptoms of human neuropsychiatric diseases. It is inconceivable that a pharmaceutical company would move forward with a clinical trial for a molecule that was only validated in a cell model without some efficacious signal obtained from animal models.

In our ACNP panel presentations and the resulting discussion, the following points were made and emphasized as critical to our abilities to move forward with reliable studies important to the field. It was clear from audience discussion that there is unanimous appreciation for the importance of animal studies relevant to mental health disorders as a necessary and invaluable aspect of biomedical research in drug discovery, development, and validation. The panel focused on several key areas including validation of animal models important to studying depression by Eric Nestler, an in-depth discussion as to what is being measured in animal behavioral studies and their relevance to disease by Josh Gordon, an appreciation for the value in understanding basic cellular processes and ‘normal’ brain function in order to apply a framework to disease risk from Huda Akil, how the development of antidepressant drugs and novel drug targets for depression provide evidence as to the importance of animal models by Scott Thompson, and the importance of model systems and conserved circuits to broadly understand disease from Kerry Ressler. Additional insight and discussion on the importance of basic research in animal behaviors was discussed by Bita Moghaddam and Ted Abel. Bill Carlezon also discussed the importance of using endpoints that can be objectively defined and studied in both humans and laboratory animals, with an emphasis on those that are becoming increasingly available in humans via smart phones and wearable devices, as a potentially transformative opportunity to better align psychiatry and neuroscience.

While the overarching focus of the panel discussion remains pertinent to the broad field of neuropsychiatric disorders, the topics discussed below largely utilize affective disorders as examples of the strengths and challenges and future directions required for the effective and informative use of animal models. Further, while the field encompasses a valuable breadth of species in such studies, examples provided below rely on rodents as the predominant preclinical model organism.

Challenges in modeling the complex human brain

The panel presentations and discussion started by acknowledging the complexities of neuropsychiatric diseases and the challenges of modeling and testing these complexities in rodents [ 2 ]. Using depression as an example, the panel highlighted that it is impossible to model the entire syndrome of depression in an animal model. First, depression is highly heterogeneous, which means that no single model could possibly capture the distinct etiologies and pathophysiological mechanisms involved. Second, depression is only ~35% heritable, with likely many hundreds of genes comprising that risk, each with only a miniscule of independent impact that differs among depressed individuals; it is therefore impossible to capture even that 35% heritability in an animal model.

By contrast, the best-established risk factor for depression is a history of life adversity or experience of stress or trauma. Accordingly, there is validity in focusing on chronic stress procedures (involving stress exposure at points across the lifespan, including stress experienced before, during and after pregnancy and birth) as models for aspects of human depression risk. It is essential when using these models for the investigator to distinguish between maladaptive versus adaptive responses to such stress, namely, to differentiate mechanisms of stress susceptibility from mechanisms of stress resilience .

Focus on stress biology: fundamental research, animal models and relevance to human affective disorders

It may be useful to step back and emphasize why studying stress neurobiology in animal models is relevant to human mood disorders. First, psychosocial stress represents the major antecedent of depression and other affective disorders. Therefore, stress is a definable trigger of the presentation of these diseases in vulnerable individuals . However, the relevance of stress neurobiology is more fundamental. At their core, affective disorders are disorders of stress coping. These disorders arise when the strategies that the organism relies upon to meet environmental challenges are insufficient, dysregulated, or otherwise maladaptive, and the affective correlates of this dysregulation can include anxiety, persistently negative mood, or in the case of traumatic experiences, post-traumatic stress disorder [ 3 ]. Therefore, understanding the fundamental biology of stress is essential to uncovering the basis of vulnerability (or resilience) to these diseases, and for designing new classes of drugs for their treatment. This is akin to how our understanding of the biology of cellular signaling, cell growth, and cell death was essential to lay the groundwork for novel treatments developed for cancer.

Thus, in the case of affective disorders, the dysregulated system represents a central function (stress responsiveness and coping) that has a clear parallel in rodents and other mammals. Indeed, the general feature of stress neurobiology, such as the existence of a hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, the role of the hippocampus, amygdala, reward circuitry, and frontal cortex, the identification of key molecules, and the broad organizational features of stress circuitry are solidly established in rodents and remarkably translatable to humans [ 4 ]. We, of course, currently lack a full understanding of when and how the stress system becomes dysfunctional, details that basic research utilizing state of the art technologies can provide. This is the area where bi-directional translation is critical; where human findings can drive questions in animal models, and animal models can provide some answers that can be tested in humans. Clearly, the readouts in animals—the choice of appropriate and meaningful behavioral tests (preferably a sophisticated range that are relevant to human behaviors), as well as the neural, genomic, and other correlates of the manipulations—are critical. But the idea is not to pretend that we are fully modeling the human illness or even specific dimensions of the illness. Rather, the goal is to achieve a better understanding of an essential biological function that is key to the illness, and to ensure that our level of understanding is actionable for translation . Thus, we view the goal of stress research in two ways: (1) to achieve a better understanding of the biology of stress and its dysregulation that will shed light on the pathophysiology of affective illnesses risk and resilience, and, (2) to provide sophisticated behavioral models for discovering new molecular drug targets and for testing novel treatments. Of course, to make progress, it is critical to identify strategies for validating the usefulness of these animal models and their relevance to human disease.

Chronic stress rodent models arguably have the best validity of any currently well characterized model for depression-related disorders. For instance, several chronic stress models have recently recapitulated many of the abnormal gene expression patterns found in the depressed human brain examined postmortem, and changes in expression have then been correlated with stress susceptibility [ 5 ]. This finding illustrates methods of validating an animal model beyond simply examining homologous behaviors detected in the models and in depressed humans, which can be difficult. Demonstrating shared circuit abnormalities in animal models and depressed humans offers another possible avenue to establish face validity. Thus, while the field should be challenged to establish better behavioral assays—with greater translational potential and interpretability—as a consequence of chronic stress in rodents, it is factually wrong to disparage the validity and importance of chronic stress models. It is clearly irresponsible to suggest that animal research is not useful or that human-derived cell models could be substituted. This is a reductio ad absurdum argument, as noted above, as no pharmaceutical company would or should embark on a clinical trial without some preclinical evidence and efficacy signal in an animal study. It is nevertheless important to keep our focus on what animal research is useful for.

Using model systems to understand human neuroscience

The problems facing those wishing to understand the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders are vast, with complexity at all levels of analysis, from molecular to cellular to systems underlying complex individual and social behaviors. While it is clear that animal models cannot fully represent the complexity of human neuropsychiatric disorders, failing to utilize the opportunities that do exist to elucidate mechanisms resembles ‘throwing the baby out with the bathwater.’ In several areas of neuroscience there is tremendous evidence for conservation across species, from mouse to human, for basic behaviors and underlying circuit-, cellular-, and molecular-based mechanisms. Examples include fear and startle circuits, and their regulation of appetitive and aversive behaviors that are relevant to anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and addiction. The fear and startle circuits originally identified by basic research involve brain stem and midbrain regions including amygdala that are highly conserved in form and function across mammals; advances that are being used to improve translation to therapeutics [ 6 ]. Decades of ensuing basic research work have established very clear circuitry for a variety of behavioral domains that has largely held up across human imaging and physiology combined with up-to-date rodent circuitry tools such as optogenetics, chemogenetics, calcium imaging, and electrical-based physiology tools. While much more needs to be established, powerful approaches such as single cell RNA sequencing across regions and species, and large scale genetic tools combined with transcriptomics and digital phenotyping across species are enabling truly novel and powerful translational approaches—in which we are not modeling disorders per se, but instead the component parts, from molecules to cells to circuits to aspects of behavioral syntax. Rather than dismissing our use of disease model systems, we must take advantage of the power of today’s tools, across species, to achieve a much greater understanding of the mammalian brain and how its function is disrupted in disease.

Antidepressants as an example

So, why then have so few novel, neuroscience-based, rationally identified antidepressants reached the clinic—do our animal studies fail to identify promising new targets? Actually, no. Many argue that preclinical research has identified an excess of targets. The disparity then between what preclinical ‘models’ have suggested as potential targets and the paucity of efficacious new drugs developed in the last 50 years strongly supports a need for more stringent criteria and more robust evidence to validate drug targets, prior to advancing them toward translation to humans. Moreover, it has become increasingly difficult over the past two decades to test molecules with novel mechanisms of action in humans, where challenges with clinical trials including patient recruitment, trial design, the placebo response, and regulatory obstacles have dramatically hindered the field’s ability to test novel mechanisms flowing through the preclinical research pipeline.

One clear hurdle for this field is that human neuropsychiatric disorders are diagnosed based on clinical criteria that do not necessarily relate to specific brain mechanisms or behaviors. Further, these clinical criteria are often not quantitative or objective. From this perspective, outcomes would benefit from more laboratory-based studies of human subjects to identify quantitative phenotypes (perhaps those that could be measured with ‘digital’ phenotyping) that ideally are responsive to treatment. Preclinical models would then focus on these quantitative phenotypes. It is also important to note that the field has focused largely on studies of the disease process once it has already developed. What processes give rise to neuropsychiatric disorders and what are their antecedents? We’ve made dramatic inroads into heart disease by focusing on elevations in blood pressure and cholesterol that occur years before a heart attack. What are the analogous processes for neuropsychiatric disease? For depression, we have a hypothesis—that it is stress or trauma experienced during specific windows of brain development or maturation, and an atypical response to stress, that sets the stage for disease. Hypotheses such as this can be tested in a clinical laboratory setting to further inform the preclinical work.

Precision is important

Perhaps the most efficient place to increase rigor begins with cleaning up our own language. As noted above, depression and other neuropsychiatric disorders are uniquely human diseases and, speaking precisely, nonhuman animals cannot therefore be ‘depressed’ or ‘schizophrenic’ or ‘autistic’. We risk damaging our credibility with funding agencies and the public when we speak of ‘depressed mice.’ The Director of the National Institute of Mental Health, Josh Gordon, articulated, for example, the important difference between a model of depression versus a model useful for the study of depression, the latter being the more accurate and objectifiable approach. Similarly, it follows that a compound tested only in nonhuman animals cannot truly be an ‘antidepressant’ or exert an ‘antidepressant action.’ The best we can say about such compounds, and only after they have been tested and proven in depressed patients, is that they are antidepressant-like or produce antidepressant-relevant responses.

With this in mind, what preclinical approaches then offer the best utility at this time for identifying promising and druggable targets for neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression? One clear point that provoked a very strong response from the ACNP audience was related to the use of behavioral endpoints in rodents that are not obviously relevant to the diseases they are intended to study. Many human antidepressants produce behavioral changes in nonhuman animals that can be detected with the tail suspension test (TST) or forced swim test (FST), suggesting that they may have some predictive validity. These tests are probably not sufficiently stringent for identification of novel antidepressant candidates, however, because responses can be elicited in control, stress-naïve animals, whereas the mood improvement responses of non-depressed human subjects to known antidepressants have not been documented. In addition, responses in these tests in rodents are elicited by acute drug administration of monoamine-based antidepressants (including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or SSRIs), whereas the human antidepressant response to these medications occurs only with chronic (several weeks to months) administration, suggesting that the mechanism(s) by which they alter behaviors in the TST or FST are distinct from their antidepressant action in humans [ 7 ]. Furthermore, these behaviors have no obvious relation to any of the symptoms of human depression, i.e. they lack face validity. Nevertheless, the FST and TST may be useful for dose-finding studies, establishing target engagement, or measuring responses to an acute stress. Emphasizing what was discussed above, it is important to recognize that the ability for a drug to impede what would be considered a ‘normal’ behavioral response to a novel stressful provocation in an otherwise healthy animal should be interpreted with caution.

An overreliance on tests such as TST or FST may account for the high rate of false positives and “me too” drugs in antidepressant drug discovery. In contrast, models based on chronic stress have construct validity because they are characterized by changes in behaviors that do have parallels with symptoms of human depression, including behaviors related to the hedonic or reward-seeking state of experimental animals, such as in sucrose preference, female urine sniffing, or social interaction tests. Chronic stress reduces the preference for, or response of, animals to these naturally rewarding stimuli, and SSRIs or other monoamine-based antidepressants restore normal behaviors when administered chronically, but not when given acutely [ 8 ]. Further, in parallel with the human antidepressant response, single doses of ketamine in rodents restore normal reward behaviors in a rapid and more persistent manner. These behaviors offer particularly attractive insight into brain function because we know much more about the key brain regions and pathways that mediate these behaviors in rodents, as well as their homologous circuitry in humans. For example, decreases in function in these circuits are prominent in preclinical research and are generally mirrored by changes in functional connectivity in human fMRI studies of depressed patients [ 9 ], raising the prospect of translational functional biomarkers of depressive states and their response to antidepressants. False positives may also derive from overly simplistic thinking of the genetic underpinnings of psychiatric disease. It is unlikely that changes in the expression of single gene products, as revealed in response to chronic stress in animal studies or from examination of human tissue, can by themselves explain complex neuropsychiatric diseases, especially when the human genetics suggest complex polygenic risk. In interpreting such results, greater skepticism, more rigor, and consideration of resilience and susceptibility, rather than a causal interpretation, is warranted.

Although the majority of the most promising novel and rationally identified antidepressants have not yet reached the clinic given the obstacles for clinical trials stated above, it is important to note that there are currently 32 antidepressant compounds or formulations in phase I, II, or III trials or pending FDA approval, increased from 20 in 2015 ( https://mentalhealthdaily.com/2018/02/13/new-antidepressants-2018-drugs-in-clinical-trials/ ). These compounds are directed against up to 14 novel molecular targets for which there are no current therapeutics. All this suggesting that we are, in fact, headed in the right direction.

It is true that the field of psychiatry has failed to rapidly advance many medications with new mechanisms of action, such as novel antidepressants, for over five decades. The only non-monoamine-based, mechanistically new , antidepressant drugs are ketamine and brexanalone—with very recent FDA approval for human use. While the discovery of ketamine’s antidepressant effect was somewhat serendipitous, basic research and animal models were imperative in that discovery [ 10 ], and remain critical for establishing ketamine’s mechanism of action on which additional studies can direct attention toward development of additional drug targets. Specifically, the antidepressant effects of ketamine were observed when this drug was being used to model aspects of schizophrenia in humans. This clinical ‘model’ was explicitly guided by basic research establishing an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor and glutamatergic mechanistic link between ketamine and other pro-psychotic hallucinogens. Concurrent with these clinical studies, animal research using a variety of stress models reported that stress exquisitely influenced glutamate neurotransmission and NMDA-receptor dependent synaptic plasticity, thus validating the hypothesis that an NMDA antagonist such as ketamine may have antidepressant-like effects. Further preclinical work with ketamine showed that its behavioral and corticolimbic effects may be produced by increased glutamate neurotransmission mediated by non-NMDA receptors, leading to the discovery of multiple new molecular mechanisms that are currently thought to mediate the antidepressant effects of ketamine. Thus, without the preclinical work in multiple areas of research and model systems, identification of a new class of antidepressant would not have been possible.

The relative lack of novel drug development cannot be laid at the feet of animal models alone, but rather represents the total collective failure of all approaches used in psychiatry—animal genetics or cellular models, circuits and behavioral studies, human brain imaging, human genetics, and clinical trials. Indeed, the failure largely reflects the unique and incredible complexity of the human brain and its disorders compared with all other organ systems. Moving forward, the best path to break this impasse in drug discovery is to better integrate these various levels of analyses with a sharper focus on advancing basic discoveries into the clinic (see take home points in Text Box 1 ). But let’s not kid ourselves , clinical translation is difficult ; it has taken more than four decades to advance precision medicine approaches in cancer and immunology, and the ultimate translational successes have relied upon very basic, fundamental research. Therefore, it is clear that we have a great deal more to learn about the brain before a renaissance of CNS drug discovery becomes possible; we cannot predict now from where these discoveries will arise. Investment in investigator-initiated basic research has been the guiding principle of research funded by the National Institutes of Health for more than half a century, and it should be continued in order to stimulate the most provocative and creative research necessary for understanding the brain and its complex disorders required for eventual disease prevention and therapeutic successes.

Box 1 Needs for the field

• In vivo experiments . The use of laboratory animals to study human disease states, including neuropsychiatric diseases, continues to have significant merit. It remains inconceivable that new treatments could be developed and successfully advanced to testing in humans without some degree of validation in laboratory animals.

• Precision . The concept of ‘an animal model of a neuropsychiatric disease’ is not precise language and needs to be refined. As a tool to bring about change, a helpful mnemonic is to change the routine terminology from ‘animal models of condition X’ to ‘animal models useful in the study of condition X’. Precision in words matters and keeps us from overinterpreting, overpromising, and progating misconceptions.

• Innovation . The general lack of innovation in developing animal models for the study of neuropsychiatric diseases is sobering when compared to advances seen in the capabilities, pace, and efficiency of molecular biology. One example of a new direction is strategic utilization of endpoints in laboratory animals that are homologous to those that can be derived from digital devices (e.g. smart phones, wearables), since these devices are increasingly prevalent and bring the promise of enabling predictions that will assist in diagnosing, treating, and preventing neuropsychiatric disease.

• Integration and complexity . We need to prioritize the identification and study of domains with cross-species homologies, such as molecular and cellular processes, neuroanatomy, circuit function, physiology, and objectively-defined behaviors.

• Leadership setting the tone . The degree to which leaders in the field are emulated—in their approaches, terminologies, and interpretations—is enormous and unquestionable. Imprecise language, sloppy study design, data overinterpretation, and inappropriate framing of behavioral outcomes are examples of scientific behaviors that are propagated and repeated, and that set precedents that are difficult to counter. We need to challenge ourselves and our colleagues to a higher bar. Thoughtful science is not only necessary, it is mandatory.

Funding and disclosure

Authors acknowledge support funding from NIMH grants: MH104184, MH108286, MH099910 (TLB); MH086828 (SMT); MH048404, MH115027 (BM), MH063266 (WAC), MH108665, MH110441, MH110925, MH117292 (KJR); MH051399, MH096890 (EJN), MH104261 (HA), MH087463, MH117964 (TA). In the past two years, Dr. Carlezon received payment as a consultant for Psy Therapeutics. The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Social Science Research Topics for Animal Welfare

Table of contents.

This is a list of social science research topics related to animal welfare, developed by researchers on the Open Phil farm animal welfare (FAW) team.

Additional context:

In the interest of brevity, we have not provided much context for each topic. But if you are a graduate student or academic, we may be able to provide you with more detail on our motivation and our interpretation of the current literature. Please email Martin Gould with your questions, or any other feedback on this list.
The topics covered in this document are the ones we find most interesting; for other lists of research topics, see here . We do not attempt to cover animal welfare science in our list, and the topics are listed in no particular order (we don’t place a higher priority on those listed first).
In some areas, we are not fully up to date on the existing literature, so some of our questions may have been answered by research already conducted.
We think it is generally valuable to use back-of-the-envelope calculations to explore ideas and findings.
If you complete research on these topics, please feel free to share your work with us and the broader animal advocacy movement (one option is to post here ) . We’re happy to see published findings, working papers, and even detailed notes that you don’t intend to formally publish

Corporate commitments

How does this differ by the type of reform? (For example, cage-free vs. Better Chicken Commitment ?)
How does this differ by country or geographical region (For example, the EU vs. Brazil?)
What are the production costs associated with specific animal welfare reforms? Here is an example of such an analysis for the European Chicken Commitment .

Policy reform

Which jurisdictions are most amenable to FAW policy reform over the next 5-10 years? Which specific reform(s) are most tractable, and why?
To what extent is animal welfare a politically polarizing issue (i.e., clearly associated with a particular political affiliation)? Is this a barrier to reform? If so, how might political polarization of animal welfare be reduced?
What conclusions should be drawn about the optimal timing of policy reform campaigns?
What would be the cost-effectiveness of a global animal welfare benchmarking project? (That is, comparing FAW by country and by company, as a basis to drive competition. Similar models have been used in human rights and global development.)
Does this vary by geographical region (for example, Asia vs. Latin America)?

Alt protein

Is the displacement rate different across PBMA products? More specifically, does it differ between “next-generation” products like Beyond and Impossible vs. other PBMA products?
What other foods are PBMA products displacing? (For example, what fraction of PBMA units/meals are replacing tofu rather than chicken?)
What are the product qualities that are most important in driving this?
What share of the global meat market will PBMA and/or cultured meat products account for in 10, 30, or 50 years?
What is the impact on sales of labeling laws that restrict the terms that can be used to describe/advertise PBMAs and other plant-based products?
Are there clear ways in which non-PBMA plant-based products could be improved to increase uptake and displace meat consumption?
What government alt protein R&D is most impactful and tractable to advocate for?
How can alt protein be supported most effectively by government policy (outside of government R&D)?

Dietary/mindset change

What are the rates of vegetarianism and veganism (collectively “veg*nism”) in populous countries (e.g., the US , China, India, EU countries)? How have these changed, if at all, over recent decades?
What percentage of people will be veg*n in 20, 50, or 100 years?
Which settings are most conducive to running rigorous experiments on dietary change interventions, and how can these settings be accessed/used? (For example, college cafeterias often allow researchers to use data on purchases, which means they don’t have to rely on self-reports.)
What about the cost-effectiveness of documentaries or other forms of mass media?
How impactful are meat advertising bans such as this one ?
Has the success of animal advocacy efforts on social media changed over time (based on standard social media metrics and possibly other metrics)? If so, why might this be the case?
How impactful would it be to get more animal welfare content into TV shows and/or movies? If this seems promising, what are the best ways to achieve it?
How impactful would it be to get already sympathetic celebrities to speak up more about animal welfare? If this seems promising, what are the best ways to achieve it?

Movement building

How strong is the relationship between country-level per capita income/wealth and FAW reform tractability?
How does an increase in the number of advocates in a given geography increase (or otherwise impact) the likelihood of finding cost-effective interventions there?

Other interventions

The UN estimates that 17% of food is wasted. Are there any cost-effective ways to help animals by reducing animal product food waste?
In the retail sector, how have the availability and sales of shrimp products changed over time? When retailers and food service companies drop shrimp products from their assortment, what are the most common reasons (e.g., environmental concerns)?
Are there datasets which don’t exist (and could be funded by philanthropy or others) that would increase the effectiveness of the animal welfare movement?
What are effective ways to influence the views of more thought leaders, policymakers, and other elites on animal welfare?
Where is the use of broiler cages increasing, and how prevalent are they in those areas? Are there any tractable interventions that could undermine those trends?
What are the most tractable and cost-effective interventions to improve wild animal welfare?

Footnotes
1	We plan to share a list of topics suited to primary empirical social science at a later date.
2	See in , under the heading ‘Important Considerations’ from page 11.

Privacy Overview

Cookie	Duration	Description
cookielawinfo-checkbox-analytics	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-functional	11 months	The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-others	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other.
cookielawinfo-checkbox-performance	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance".
viewed_cookie_policy	11 months	The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data.

IMAGES

(PDF) Issues and special features of animal health research
Front Matter
Animal Research Template by Teacher by Trend
Agricultural Animal Health Research Facility
(PDF) Advances in animal health research and one-health discovery
(PDF) Animal Rights and Use of Animals in Biomedical Research

VIDEO

Farm animal research that could improve the effectiveness of flue shots
Animal Health Mode of Action Showreel
The role of the animal and public health sectors in handling security threats
The European Commission for the control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (EuFMD)
Introducing the animal family of journals
Spaniel Dog Eats Poisonous Plants And Needs New Medical Technology

COMMENTS

Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics
This comprehensive list of veterinary medicine research paper topics provides students with a wide range of subjects to explore within the field. Whether you are interested in animal behavior, infectious diseases, pharmacology, surgery, or any other aspect of veterinary medicine, there are countless opportunities for research and innovation.
162 Best Animal Research Topics To Nail Your Paper In 2023
Animal Research Topics For University. Color patterns of moths and moths. Mimicry in the sexual signals of fireflies. Ecophysiology of the garter snake. Memory, dreams regarding cat neurology. Spatiotemporal variation in the composition of animal communities. Detection of prey in the sand scorpion.
Discover Inspiring Animal Research Topics
2.1 Animal Physiology Research Topics. 2.2 Controversial Animal Topics. 2.3 Animal Rights Topics For Research Paper. 2.4 Interesting Animal Research Topics. 2.5 Veterinary Topics For Research Paper. 2.6 Animal Testing Research Topics. 2.7 Animal Cruelty Topics. 2.8 Research Questions about Animals. 3 Get Professional Help for Your Animal ...
45+ Veterinary Dissertation Topics
45+ Veterinary Dissertation Topics. Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On May 3, 2024. Veterinary medicine is a broad area of study, so there are many potential issues you can base your dissertation or thesis on. You may want to consider veterinary science comparable to human health care, such as laboratory animal medicine ...
Journal of Animal Science
The Journal of Animal Science, an official journal of the American Society of Animal Science, publishes research on topics in animal production and fundamental aspects of genetics, nutrition, physiology and the preparation and utilization of animal products.
Articles
The purpose of this study was to investigate genetic variation in salmonid alphavirus-3 (SAV3) over the course of an experimental i... HyeongJin Roh, Kai Ove Skaftnesmo, Dhamotharan Kannimuthu, Abdullah Madhun, Sonal Patel, Bjørn Olav Kvamme, H. Craig Morton and Søren Grove. Veterinary Research 2024 55:106.
Research perspectives on animal health in the era of artificial
Leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) approaches in animal health (AH) makes it possible to address highly complex issues such as those encountered in quantitative and predictive epidemiology, animal/human precision-based medicine, or to study host × pathogen interactions. AI may contribute (i) to diagnosis and disease case detection, (ii) to more reliable predictions and reduced errors ...
Editorial: Insights in animal behavior and welfare: 2021
In 2021 Edition of this Topic, we show a collection of 6 peer reviewed articles which highlight the different advancements in the fields of animal welfare and behavior. The first manuscript by Narayan et al. studied novel epigenetic markers, activity budget, physiological stress responses (wool cortisol) and wool quality of Merino sheep (Ovis ...
Animal behaviour
Animal behaviour is the scientific study of the behaviour of animals. The discipline covers study under experimental conditions, behaviourism, or natural conditions, ethology. Latest Research and ...
Research perspectives on animal health in the era of artificial
AI addresses three challenges that also make sense in animal health (AH): (1) understanding a situation and its dynamics, e.g., epidemic spread; (2) the perception of the environment, which corresponds in AH to the detection of patterns (e.g., repeated sequence of observations), forms (e.g., of a protein) and signals (e.g., increased mortality compared to a baseline) at different scales; (3 ...
Animal Health and Production: Identifying Challenges and ...
Keywords: sustainable animal production, disease management, one-health, food security, zoonoses, host-pathogen interaction, microbiome, intelligent breeding technology, climate change, AMR . Important Note: All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements.
A guide to open science practices for animal research
Fig 1. Using open science practices throughout translational research studies. Application of open science practices at each step of the research process can maximize the impact of performed animal experiments. The implementation of these practices will lead to less time pressure at the end of a project.
Disease control tools to secure animal and public health in a densely
Animal health is a prerequisite for global health, economic development, food security, food quality, and poverty reduction, while mitigating against climate change and biodiversity loss. We did a qualitative review of 53 infectious diseases in terrestrial animals with data from DISCONTOOLS, a specialist database and prioritisation model focusing on research gaps for improving infectious ...
Issues and special features of animal health research
In the rapidly changing context of research on animal health, INRA launched a collective discussion on the challenges facing the field, its distinguishing features, and synergies with biomedical research. As has been declared forcibly by the heads of WHO, FAO and OIE, the challenges facing animal health, beyond diseases transmissible to humans, are critically important and involve food ...
Animal biotechnology
Atom. RSS Feed. Animal biotechnology is a branch of biotechnology in which molecular biology techniques are used to genetically engineer (i.e. modify the genome of) animals in order to improve ...
Frontiers in Veterinary Science
Animal Health and Production: Identifying Challenges and Finding a Way Forward. Izhar Hyder Qazi. Yangchun Cao. Jesus R. Requena. 60,040 views. 39 articles. Part of the third most-cited veterinary science journal, this section explores insights into the behavior and welfare of both domesticated and non-domesticated animals managed or affected ...
LibGuides: Animal Science Subject Guide: Research Topics
Nepenthes alata (Asian pitcher plant) Sarracenia purpurea (American pitcher plant) Drosera adelae (Sundew) Concept 3. Digestive enzymes. Chitanase. Purple acid phosphatase. RNase T2. Add Boolean Operators (AND & OR) to structure the search in a database search interface.
What Animal Research Has Given Us
Here are just a few of the life-altering, life-extending, and lifesaving medical advancements that animal research has made possible: Therapies for diabetes, high blood pressure, various forms of heart disease, high cholesterol, cancer, kidney disease, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and more. Organ transplantation. Antibiotics.
Why Animal Research?
There are several reasons why the use of animals is critical for biomedical research: • Animals are biologically very similar to humans. In fact, mice share more than 98% DNA with us! • Animals are susceptible to many of the same health problems as humans - cancer, diabetes, heart disease, etc. • With a shorter life cycle than humans ...
Animal Health Research Reviews
From 8th December 2023, Animal Health Research Reviews will be moving to a Gold Open Access publishing model.All accepted articles from this date will be published with a Creative Commons licence and will be subject to an Article Processing Charge (see the journal's Open Access Options page for available licence options). Many corresponding authors will have their APC covered by a ...
29004 PDFs
Feb 2023. Muhammad Shuaib Shaffi. This paper aims to describe the core functions of veterinary epidemiology in public health to understand the ultimate objective of preventing, mitigating, or ...
Reimagining alternatives to animal testing
Hartung's research has found that there are cases where animal models may no longer be necessary. In a paper published in a 2018 edition of the journal Toxicological Sciences , he and his team found they were able to predict—using a computer model that combed through a massive chemical hazard database—whether a particular chemical would be ...
Therap/eutic animal connections: Reassembling our conceptions of
Animal therapy has an extended history of existence in clinical settings and literature and, in more recent times, seems to be gaining a level of acceptance within the dominant understandings or "assemblage" of health. That is, within a framework of understanding health as being focused on pathology and illness, where the responses are expert-driven, and dominated by pharmaceutical and ...
The critical importance of basic animal research for neuropsychiatric
The challenges and critical importance of keeping our thinking about neuropsychiatric disorders mechanisms and classifications up-to-date have prompted a dynamic discourse as to the value, appropriateness, and reliability of the animal models we use and the outcomes we measure. At a time when most major pharmaceutical companies are disbanding ...
Social Science Research Topics for Animal Welfare
This is a list of social science research topics related to animal welfare, developed by researchers on the Open Phil farm animal welfare (FAW) team. We compiled this list because people often ask us for suggestions on topics that would be valuable to research. The primary audience for this document is students (undergrad, grad, high school ...

Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

100 Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Veterinary Medicine: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Choosing Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

How to Write a Veterinary Medicine Research Paper

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

Achieve Excellence with iResearchNet!

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

162 Best Animal Research Topics To Nail Your Paper In 2023

Best Animal Research Topics

Physiology of Animals Research Topics

Animal Research Topics For Student

Animal Research Topics For University

Controversial Animal Research Topics

Animal Research Topics: Animal Rights

Interesting Animal Research Topics

Submarine Animals Research Topics

Animal Biology Research Topics

Try Our Free Paper Writing Service

Animal Research Topics Unleashed: Fauna Frontiers

How to Choose Animals Research Topics?

50+ Most Interesting & Easy Animal Research Topics

Controversial Animal Topics

Animal Rights Topics For Research Paper

Interesting Animal Research Topics

Veterinary Topics For Research Paper

Animal Testing Research Topics

Animal Cruelty Topics

Research Questions about Animals

Get Professional Help for Your Animal Research Paper

Readers also enjoyed

WHY WAIT? PLACE AN ORDER RIGHT NOW!

Useful Links

45+ Veterinary Dissertation Topics

Veterinary Dissertation Topics and Ideas

Order a Proposal

Free Dissertation Topic

Frequently Asked Questions

You May Also Like

Issues and special features of animal health research

Table of contents

5. Conclusion

4.3.2. Pharmaceutic industry

4.4. The "One World, One Health" approach

Author information

Corresponding author

Additional information

Authors’ original submitted files for images

Authors’ original file for figure 1

About this article

Share this article

Veterinary Research

Animal biotechnology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Related Subjects

Latest Research and Reviews

Expanding the CRISPR base editing toolbox in Drosophila melanogaster

Production of a heterozygous exon skipping model of common marmosets using gene-editing technology

Enhancing early identification of high-fertile cattle females using infrared blood serum spectra and machine learning

Induction of trained immunity in broiler chickens following delivery of oligodeoxynucleotide containing CpG motifs to protect against Escherichia coli septicemia

Altering traits and fates of wild populations with Mendelian DNA sequence modifying Allele Sails

Enhanced repellent and anti-nutritional activities of polymeric nanoparticles containing essential oils against red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum

News and Comment

An innovative, sustainable, no-kill sea urchin aquaculture method

Beef paddies

How biofabrication can accelerate cultured meat’s path to market

Sir Ian Wilmut 1944–2023

Rapid-response manufacturing of adenovirus-vectored vaccines

Evolutionary divergence impact on de-extinction

Quick links

Animal Science Subject Guide — Research Topics

Narrowing a topic

Where to find possible topics for science papers

Search Strategies for Topics

WHY ANIMAL RESEARCH?

There are several reasons why the use of animals is critical for biomedical research:

The ethics of animal experimentation

Our researchers are strong supporters of animal welfare and view their work with animals in biomedical research as a privilege.

Organizations and Resources

Stanford Discoveries