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• What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

• Identify credible sources
• Evaluate and respond to arguments
• Assess alternative viewpoints
• Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Table of contents

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

• Is free from research bias
• Provides evidence to support its research findings
• Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

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Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
• What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
• When did they say this? Is the source current?
• Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
• Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

• Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
• Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
• Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

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41+ Critical Thinking Examples (Definition + Practices)

Critical thinking is an essential skill in our information-overloaded world, where figuring out what is fact and fiction has become increasingly challenging.

But why is critical thinking essential? Put, critical thinking empowers us to make better decisions, challenge and validate our beliefs and assumptions, and understand and interact with the world more effectively and meaningfully.

Critical thinking is like using your brain's "superpowers" to make smart choices. Whether it's picking the right insurance, deciding what to do in a job, or discussing topics in school, thinking deeply helps a lot. In the next parts, we'll share real-life examples of when this superpower comes in handy and give you some fun exercises to practice it.

Critical Thinking Process Outline

Critical thinking means thinking clearly and fairly without letting personal feelings get in the way. It's like being a detective, trying to solve a mystery by using clues and thinking hard about them.

It isn't always easy to think critically, as it can take a pretty smart person to see some of the questions that aren't being answered in a certain situation. But, we can train our brains to think more like puzzle solvers, which can help develop our critical thinking skills.

Here's what it looks like step by step:

Spotting the Problem: It's like discovering a puzzle to solve. You see that there's something you need to figure out or decide.

Collecting Clues: Now, you need to gather information. Maybe you read about it, watch a video, talk to people, or do some research. It's like getting all the pieces to solve your puzzle.

Breaking It Down: This is where you look at all your clues and try to see how they fit together. You're asking questions like: Why did this happen? What could happen next?

Checking Your Clues: You want to make sure your information is good. This means seeing if what you found out is true and if you can trust where it came from.

Making a Guess: After looking at all your clues, you think about what they mean and come up with an answer. This answer is like your best guess based on what you know.

Explaining Your Thoughts: Now, you tell others how you solved the puzzle. You explain how you thought about it and how you answered. 

Checking Your Work: This is like looking back and seeing if you missed anything. Did you make any mistakes? Did you let any personal feelings get in the way? This step helps make sure your thinking is clear and fair.

And remember, you might sometimes need to go back and redo some steps if you discover something new. If you realize you missed an important clue, you might have to go back and collect more information.

Critical Thinking Methods

Just like doing push-ups or running helps our bodies get stronger, there are special exercises that help our brains think better. These brain workouts push us to think harder, look at things closely, and ask many questions.

It's not always about finding the "right" answer. Instead, it's about the journey of thinking and asking "why" or "how." Doing these exercises often helps us become better thinkers and makes us curious to know more about the world.

Now, let's look at some brain workouts to help us think better:

1. "What If" Scenarios

Imagine crazy things happening, like, "What if there was no internet for a month? What would we do?" These games help us think of new and different ideas.

Pick a hot topic. Argue one side of it and then try arguing the opposite. This makes us see different viewpoints and think deeply about a topic.

3. Analyze Visual Data

Check out charts or pictures with lots of numbers and info but no explanations. What story are they telling? This helps us get better at understanding information just by looking at it.

4. Mind Mapping

Write an idea in the center and then draw lines to related ideas. It's like making a map of your thoughts. This helps us see how everything is connected.

There's lots of mind-mapping software , but it's also nice to do this by hand.

5. Weekly Diary

Every week, write about what happened, the choices you made, and what you learned. Writing helps us think about our actions and how we can do better.

6. Evaluating Information Sources

Collect stories or articles about one topic from newspapers or blogs. Which ones are trustworthy? Which ones might be a little biased? This teaches us to be smart about where we get our info.

There are many resources to help you determine if information sources are factual or not.

7. Socratic Questioning

This way of thinking is called the Socrates Method, named after an old-time thinker from Greece. It's about asking lots of questions to understand a topic. You can do this by yourself or chat with a friend.

Start with a Big Question:

"What does 'success' mean?"

Dive Deeper with More Questions:

"Why do you think of success that way?" "Do TV shows, friends, or family make you think that?" "Does everyone think about success the same way?"

"Can someone be a winner even if they aren't rich or famous?" "Can someone feel like they didn't succeed, even if everyone else thinks they did?"

Look for Real-life Examples:

"Who is someone you think is successful? Why?" "Was there a time you felt like a winner? What happened?"

Think About Other People's Views:

"How might a person from another country think about success?" "Does the idea of success change as we grow up or as our life changes?"

Think About What It Means:

"How does your idea of success shape what you want in life?" "Are there problems with only wanting to be rich or famous?"

Look Back and Think:

"After talking about this, did your idea of success change? How?" "Did you learn something new about what success means?"

8. Six Thinking Hats 

Edward de Bono came up with a cool way to solve problems by thinking in six different ways, like wearing different colored hats. You can do this independently, but it might be more effective in a group so everyone can have a different hat color. Each color has its way of thinking:

White Hat (Facts): Just the facts! Ask, "What do we know? What do we need to find out?"

Red Hat (Feelings): Talk about feelings. Ask, "How do I feel about this?"

Black Hat (Careful Thinking): Be cautious. Ask, "What could go wrong?"

Yellow Hat (Positive Thinking): Look on the bright side. Ask, "What's good about this?"

Green Hat (Creative Thinking): Think of new ideas. Ask, "What's another way to look at this?"

Blue Hat (Planning): Organize the talk. Ask, "What should we do next?"

When using this method with a group:

• Explain all the hats.
• Decide which hat to wear first.
• Make sure everyone switches hats at the same time.
• Finish with the Blue Hat to plan the next steps.

9. SWOT Analysis

SWOT Analysis is like a game plan for businesses to know where they stand and where they should go. "SWOT" stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.

There are a lot of SWOT templates out there for how to do this visually, but you can also think it through. It doesn't just apply to businesses but can be a good way to decide if a project you're working on is working.

Strengths: What's working well? Ask, "What are we good at?"

Weaknesses: Where can we do better? Ask, "Where can we improve?"

Opportunities: What good things might come our way? Ask, "What chances can we grab?"

Threats: What challenges might we face? Ask, "What might make things tough for us?"

Steps to do a SWOT Analysis:

• Goal: Decide what you want to find out.
• Research: Learn about your business and the world around it.
• Brainstorm: Get a group and think together. Talk about strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
• Pick the Most Important Points: Some things might be more urgent or important than others.
• Make a Plan: Decide what to do based on your SWOT list.
• Check Again Later: Things change, so look at your SWOT again after a while to update it.

Now that you have a few tools for thinking critically, let’s get into some specific examples.

Everyday Examples

Life is a series of decisions. From the moment we wake up, we're faced with choices – some trivial, like choosing a breakfast cereal, and some more significant, like buying a home or confronting an ethical dilemma at work. While it might seem that these decisions are disparate, they all benefit from the application of critical thinking.

10. Deciding to buy something

Imagine you want a new phone. Don't just buy it because the ad looks cool. Think about what you need in a phone. Look up different phones and see what people say about them. Choose the one that's the best deal for what you want.

11. Deciding what is true

There's a lot of news everywhere. Don't believe everything right away. Think about why someone might be telling you this. Check if what you're reading or watching is true. Make up your mind after you've looked into it.

12. Deciding when you’re wrong

Sometimes, friends can have disagreements. Don't just get mad right away. Try to see where they're coming from. Talk about what's going on. Find a way to fix the problem that's fair for everyone.

13. Deciding what to eat

There's always a new diet or exercise that's popular. Don't just follow it because it's trendy. Find out if it's good for you. Ask someone who knows, like a doctor. Make choices that make you feel good and stay healthy.

14. Deciding what to do today

Everyone is busy with school, chores, and hobbies. Make a list of things you need to do. Decide which ones are most important. Plan your day so you can get things done and still have fun.

15. Making Tough Choices

Sometimes, it's hard to know what's right. Think about how each choice will affect you and others. Talk to people you trust about it. Choose what feels right in your heart and is fair to others.

16. Planning for the Future

Big decisions, like where to go to school, can be tricky. Think about what you want in the future. Look at the good and bad of each choice. Talk to people who know about it. Pick what feels best for your dreams and goals.

Job Examples

17. solving problems.

Workers brainstorm ways to fix a machine quickly without making things worse when a machine breaks at a factory.

18. Decision Making

A store manager decides which products to order more of based on what's selling best.

19. Setting Goals

A team leader helps their team decide what tasks are most important to finish this month and which can wait.

20. Evaluating Ideas

At a team meeting, everyone shares ideas for a new project. The group discusses each idea's pros and cons before picking one.

21. Handling Conflict

Two workers disagree on how to do a job. Instead of arguing, they talk calmly, listen to each other, and find a solution they both like.

22. Improving Processes

A cashier thinks of a faster way to ring up items so customers don't have to wait as long.

23. Asking Questions

Before starting a big task, an employee asks for clear instructions and checks if they have the necessary tools.

24. Checking Facts

Before presenting a report, someone double-checks all their information to make sure there are no mistakes.

25. Planning for the Future

A business owner thinks about what might happen in the next few years, like new competitors or changes in what customers want, and makes plans based on those thoughts.

26. Understanding Perspectives

A team is designing a new toy. They think about what kids and parents would both like instead of just what they think is fun.

School Examples

27. researching a topic.

For a history project, a student looks up different sources to understand an event from multiple viewpoints.

28. Debating an Issue

In a class discussion, students pick sides on a topic, like school uniforms, and share reasons to support their views.

29. Evaluating Sources

While writing an essay, a student checks if the information from a website is trustworthy or might be biased.

30. Problem Solving in Math

When stuck on a tricky math problem, a student tries different methods to find the answer instead of giving up.

31. Analyzing Literature

In English class, students discuss why a character in a book made certain choices and what those decisions reveal about them.

32. Testing a Hypothesis

For a science experiment, students guess what will happen and then conduct tests to see if they're right or wrong.

33. Giving Peer Feedback

After reading a classmate's essay, a student offers suggestions for improving it.

34. Questioning Assumptions

In a geography lesson, students consider why certain countries are called "developed" and what that label means.

35. Designing a Study

For a psychology project, students plan an experiment to understand how people's memories work and think of ways to ensure accurate results.

36. Interpreting Data

In a science class, students look at charts and graphs from a study, then discuss what the information tells them and if there are any patterns.

Critical Thinking Puzzles

Not all scenarios will have a single correct answer that can be figured out by thinking critically. Sometimes we have to think critically about ethical choices or moral behaviors. 

Here are some mind games and scenarios you can solve using critical thinking. You can see the solution(s) at the end of the post.

37. The Farmer, Fox, Chicken, and Grain Problem

A farmer is at a riverbank with a fox, a chicken, and a grain bag. He needs to get all three items across the river. However, his boat can only carry himself and one of the three items at a time. 

Here's the challenge:

• If the fox is left alone with the chicken, the fox will eat the chicken.
• If the chicken is left alone with the grain, the chicken will eat the grain.

How can the farmer get all three items across the river without any item being eaten? 

38. The Rope, Jar, and Pebbles Problem

You are in a room with two long ropes hanging from the ceiling. Each rope is just out of arm's reach from the other, so you can't hold onto one rope and reach the other simultaneously. 

Your task is to tie the two rope ends together, but you can't move the position where they hang from the ceiling.

You are given a jar full of pebbles. How do you complete the task?

39. The Two Guards Problem

Imagine there are two doors. One door leads to certain doom, and the other leads to freedom. You don't know which is which.

In front of each door stands a guard. One guard always tells the truth. The other guard always lies. You don't know which guard is which.

You can ask only one question to one of the guards. What question should you ask to find the door that leads to freedom?

40. The Hourglass Problem

You have two hourglasses. One measures 7 minutes when turned over, and the other measures 4 minutes. Using just these hourglasses, how can you time exactly 9 minutes?

41. The Lifeboat Dilemma

Imagine you're on a ship that's sinking. You get on a lifeboat, but it's already too full and might flip over. 

Nearby in the water, five people are struggling: a scientist close to finding a cure for a sickness, an old couple who've been together for a long time, a mom with three kids waiting at home, and a tired teenager who helped save others but is now in danger. 

You can only save one person without making the boat flip. Who would you choose?

42. The Tech Dilemma

You work at a tech company and help make a computer program to help small businesses. You're almost ready to share it with everyone, but you find out there might be a small chance it has a problem that could show users' private info. 

If you decide to fix it, you must wait two more months before sharing it. But your bosses want you to share it now. What would you do?

43. The History Mystery

Dr. Amelia is a history expert. She's studying where a group of people traveled long ago. She reads old letters and documents to learn about it. But she finds some letters that tell a different story than what most people believe. 

If she says this new story is true, it could change what people learn in school and what they think about history. What should she do?

The Role of Bias in Critical Thinking

Have you ever decided you don’t like someone before you even know them? Or maybe someone shared an idea with you that you immediately loved without even knowing all the details. 

This experience is called bias, which occurs when you like or dislike something or someone without a good reason or knowing why. It can also take shape in certain reactions to situations, like a habit or instinct. 

Bias comes from our own experiences, what friends or family tell us, or even things we are born believing. Sometimes, bias can help us stay safe, but other times it stops us from seeing the truth.

Not all bias is bad. Bias can be a mechanism for assessing our potential safety in a new situation. If we are biased to think that anything long, thin, and curled up is a snake, we might assume the rope is something to be afraid of before we know it is just a rope.

While bias might serve us in some situations (like jumping out of the way of an actual snake before we have time to process that we need to be jumping out of the way), it often harms our ability to think critically.

How Bias Gets in the Way of Good Thinking

Selective Perception: We only notice things that match our ideas and ignore the rest. 

It's like only picking red candies from a mixed bowl because you think they taste the best, but they taste the same as every other candy in the bowl. It could also be when we see all the signs that our partner is cheating on us but choose to ignore them because we are happy the way we are (or at least, we think we are).

Agreeing with Yourself: This is called “ confirmation bias ” when we only listen to ideas that match our own and seek, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms what we already think we know or believe. 

An example is when someone wants to know if it is safe to vaccinate their children but already believes that vaccines are not safe, so they only look for information supporting the idea that vaccines are bad.

Thinking We Know It All: Similar to confirmation bias, this is called “overconfidence bias.” Sometimes we think our ideas are the best and don't listen to others. This can stop us from learning.

Have you ever met someone who you consider a “know it”? Probably, they have a lot of overconfidence bias because while they may know many things accurately, they can’t know everything. Still, if they act like they do, they show overconfidence bias.

There's a weird kind of bias similar to this called the Dunning Kruger Effect, and that is when someone is bad at what they do, but they believe and act like they are the best .

Following the Crowd: This is formally called “groupthink”. It's hard to speak up with a different idea if everyone agrees. But this can lead to mistakes.

An example of this we’ve all likely seen is the cool clique in primary school. There is usually one person that is the head of the group, the “coolest kid in school”, and everyone listens to them and does what they want, even if they don’t think it’s a good idea.

How to Overcome Biases

Here are a few ways to learn to think better, free from our biases (or at least aware of them!).

Know Your Biases: Realize that everyone has biases. If we know about them, we can think better.

Listen to Different People: Talking to different kinds of people can give us new ideas.

Ask Why: Always ask yourself why you believe something. Is it true, or is it just a bias?

Understand Others: Try to think about how others feel. It helps you see things in new ways.

Keep Learning: Always be curious and open to new information.

In today's world, everything changes fast, and there's so much information everywhere. This makes critical thinking super important. It helps us distinguish between what's real and what's made up. It also helps us make good choices. But thinking this way can be tough sometimes because of biases. These are like sneaky thoughts that can trick us. The good news is we can learn to see them and think better.

There are cool tools and ways we've talked about, like the "Socratic Questioning" method and the "Six Thinking Hats." These tools help us get better at thinking. These thinking skills can also help us in school, work, and everyday life.

We’ve also looked at specific scenarios where critical thinking would be helpful, such as deciding what diet to follow and checking facts.

Thinking isn't just a skill—it's a special talent we improve over time. Working on it lets us see things more clearly and understand the world better. So, keep practicing and asking questions! It'll make you a smarter thinker and help you see the world differently.

Critical Thinking Puzzles (Solutions)

The farmer, fox, chicken, and grain problem.

• The farmer first takes the chicken across the river and leaves it on the other side.
• He returns to the original side and takes the fox across the river.
• After leaving the fox on the other side, he returns the chicken to the starting side.
• He leaves the chicken on the starting side and takes the grain bag across the river.
• He leaves the grain with the fox on the other side and returns to get the chicken.
• The farmer takes the chicken across, and now all three items -- the fox, the chicken, and the grain -- are safely on the other side of the river.

The Rope, Jar, and Pebbles Problem

• Take one rope and tie the jar of pebbles to its end.
• Swing the rope with the jar in a pendulum motion.
• While the rope is swinging, grab the other rope and wait.
• As the swinging rope comes back within reach due to its pendulum motion, grab it.
• With both ropes within reach, untie the jar and tie the rope ends together.

The Two Guards Problem

The question is, "What would the other guard say is the door to doom?" Then choose the opposite door.

The Hourglass Problem

• Start both hourglasses. 
• When the 4-minute hourglass runs out, turn it over.
• When the 7-minute hourglass runs out, the 4-minute hourglass will have been running for 3 minutes. Turn the 7-minute hourglass over. 
• When the 4-minute hourglass runs out for the second time (a total of 8 minutes have passed), the 7-minute hourglass will run for 1 minute. Turn the 7-minute hourglass again for 1 minute to empty the hourglass (a total of 9 minutes passed).

The Boat and Weights Problem

Take the cat over first and leave it on the other side. Then, return and take the fish across next. When you get there, take the cat back with you. Leave the cat on the starting side and take the cat food across. Lastly, return to get the cat and bring it to the other side.

The Lifeboat Dilemma

There isn’t one correct answer to this problem. Here are some elements to consider:

• Moral Principles: What values guide your decision? Is it the potential greater good for humanity (the scientist)? What is the value of long-standing love and commitment (the elderly couple)? What is the future of young children who depend on their mothers? Or the selfless bravery of the teenager?
• Future Implications: Consider the future consequences of each choice. Saving the scientist might benefit millions in the future, but what moral message does it send about the value of individual lives?
• Emotional vs. Logical Thinking: While it's essential to engage empathy, it's also crucial not to let emotions cloud judgment entirely. For instance, while the teenager's bravery is commendable, does it make him more deserving of a spot on the boat than the others?
• Acknowledging Uncertainty: The scientist claims to be close to a significant breakthrough, but there's no certainty. How does this uncertainty factor into your decision?
• Personal Bias: Recognize and challenge any personal biases, such as biases towards age, profession, or familial status.

The Tech Dilemma

Again, there isn’t one correct answer to this problem. Here are some elements to consider:

• Evaluate the Risk: How severe is the potential vulnerability? Can it be easily exploited, or would it require significant expertise? Even if the circumstances are rare, what would be the consequences if the vulnerability were exploited?
• Stakeholder Considerations: Different stakeholders will have different priorities. Upper management might prioritize financial projections, the marketing team might be concerned about the product's reputation, and customers might prioritize the security of their data. How do you balance these competing interests?
• Short-Term vs. Long-Term Implications: While launching on time could meet immediate financial goals, consider the potential long-term damage to the company's reputation if the vulnerability is exploited. Would the short-term gains be worth the potential long-term costs?
• Ethical Implications : Beyond the financial and reputational aspects, there's an ethical dimension to consider. Is it right to release a product with a known vulnerability, even if the chances of it being exploited are low?
• Seek External Input: Consulting with cybersecurity experts outside your company might be beneficial. They could provide a more objective risk assessment and potential mitigation strategies.
• Communication: How will you communicate the decision, whatever it may be, both internally to your team and upper management and externally to your customers and potential users?

The History Mystery

Dr. Amelia should take the following steps:

• Verify the Letters: Before making any claims, she should check if the letters are actual and not fake. She can do this by seeing when and where they were written and if they match with other things from that time.
• Get a Second Opinion: It's always good to have someone else look at what you've found. Dr. Amelia could show the letters to other history experts and see their thoughts.
• Research More: Maybe there are more documents or letters out there that support this new story. Dr. Amelia should keep looking to see if she can find more evidence.
• Share the Findings: If Dr. Amelia believes the letters are true after all her checks, she should tell others. This can be through books, talks, or articles.
• Stay Open to Feedback: Some people might agree with Dr. Amelia, and others might not. She should listen to everyone and be ready to learn more or change her mind if new information arises.

Ultimately, Dr. Amelia's job is to find out the truth about history and share it. It's okay if this new truth differs from what people used to believe. History is about learning from the past, no matter the story.

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• Experimenter Bias (Definition + Examples)
• Hasty Generalization Fallacy (31 Examples + Similar Names)
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Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.

2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples

2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.

Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as

active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)

and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.

In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.

Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment.

For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .

2. Examples and Non-Examples

Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.

Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.

Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)

Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.

“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.

“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)

Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).

Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.

Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).

Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).

Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).

Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).

Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).

Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond lane from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.

Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.

Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as

a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)

A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.

Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.

What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as

a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)

Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.

• It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
• The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
• The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.

One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.

If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses. As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009, 2021), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on responsiveness to reasons (Siegel 1988). Kuhn (2019) takes critical thinking to be more a dialogic practice of advancing and responding to arguments than an individual ability.

In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.

Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).

Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.

Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:

• suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
• an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
• the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
• the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
• testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)

The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).

The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).

Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.

If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.

• Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
• Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in spacing in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
• Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
• Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
• Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
• Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
• Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the spacing of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
• Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
• Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
• Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
• Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.

By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.

Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.

Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.

Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)

8. Critical Thinking Dispositions

Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016a) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).

On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.

A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.

Facione (1990a: 25) divides “affective dispositions” of critical thinking into approaches to life and living in general and approaches to specific issues, questions or problems. Adapting this distinction, one can usefully divide critical thinking dispositions into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.

Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.

• Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
• Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
• Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking. In three studies, Haran, Ritov, & Mellers (2013) found that actively open-minded thinking, including “the tendency to weigh new evidence against a favored belief, to spend sufficient time on a problem before giving up, and to consider carefully the opinions of others in forming one’s own”, led study participants to acquire information and thus to make accurate estimations.
• Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
• Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
• Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.

Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .

Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.

Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).

The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.

Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.

Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.

Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).

Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.

Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.

Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.

Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.

Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.

In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.

We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), Black (2012), and Blair (2021).

According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work. It is also helpful to be aware of the prevalence of “noise” (unwanted unsystematic variability of judgments), of how to detect noise (through a noise audit), and of how to reduce noise: make accuracy the goal, think statistically, break a process of arriving at a judgment into independent tasks, resist premature intuitions, in a group get independent judgments first, favour comparative judgments and scales (Kahneman, Sibony, & Sunstein 2021). It is helpful as well to be aware of the concept of “bounded rationality” in decision-making and of the related distinction between “satisficing” and optimizing (Simon 1956; Gigerenzer 2001).

Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.

Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .

What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? In a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies of strategies for teaching students to think critically, Abrami et al. (2015) found that dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.

Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .

12. Controversies

Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.

McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), Bailin et al. (1999b), and Willingham (2019).

McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.

The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.

It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.

Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:

• reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
• distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
• indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
• orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
• being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
• being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
• doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
• reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
• attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
• winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)

A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as

thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)

Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should

be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)

Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.

The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:

• Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
• Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
• Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
• In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
• Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).

A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.

What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .

As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.

• Abrami, Philip C., Robert M. Bernard, Eugene Borokhovski, David I. Waddington, C. Anne Wade, and Tonje Person, 2015, “Strategies for Teaching Students to Think Critically: A Meta-analysis”, Review of Educational Research , 85(2): 275–314. doi:10.3102/0034654314551063
• Aikin, Wilford M., 1942, The Story of the Eight-year Study, with Conclusions and Recommendations , Volume I of Adventure in American Education , New York and London: Harper & Brothers. [ Aikin 1942 available online ]
• Alston, Kal, 1995, “Begging the Question: Is Critical Thinking Biased?”, Educational Theory , 45(2): 225–233. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1995.00225.x
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• Critical Thinking Definition, Instruction, and Assessment: A Rigorous Approach
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• The Nature of Critical Thinking: An Outline of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities , by Robert H. Ennis

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Critical Thinking and Decision-Making  - What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking and decision-making  -, what is critical thinking, critical thinking and decision-making what is critical thinking.

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: What is Critical Thinking?

Lesson 1: what is critical thinking, what is critical thinking.

Critical thinking is a term that gets thrown around a lot. You've probably heard it used often throughout the years whether it was in school, at work, or in everyday conversation. But when you stop to think about it, what exactly is critical thinking and how do you do it ?

Watch the video below to learn more about critical thinking.

Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions . It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better.

This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical thinking is a broad skill that can be applied to so many different situations. You can use it to prepare for a job interview, manage your time better, make decisions about purchasing things, and so much more.

The process

As humans, we are constantly thinking . It's something we can't turn off. But not all of it is critical thinking. No one thinks critically 100% of the time... that would be pretty exhausting! Instead, it's an intentional process , something that we consciously use when we're presented with difficult problems or important decisions.

Improving your critical thinking

In order to become a better critical thinker, it's important to ask questions when you're presented with a problem or decision, before jumping to any conclusions. You can start with simple ones like What do I currently know? and How do I know this? These can help to give you a better idea of what you're working with and, in some cases, simplify more complex issues.  

Real-world applications

Let's take a look at how we can use critical thinking to evaluate online information . Say a friend of yours posts a news article on social media and you're drawn to its headline. If you were to use your everyday automatic thinking, you might accept it as fact and move on. But if you were thinking critically, you would first analyze the available information and ask some questions :

• What's the source of this article?
• Is the headline potentially misleading?
• What are my friend's general beliefs?
• Do their beliefs inform why they might have shared this?

After analyzing all of this information, you can draw a conclusion about whether or not you think the article is trustworthy.

Critical thinking has a wide range of real-world applications . It can help you to make better decisions, become more hireable, and generally better understand the world around you.

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What Is Critical Thinking? | Meaning & Examples

Critical thinking is the process of analyzing information logically and overcoming assumptions, biases, and logical fallacies. Developing critical thinking skills allows us to evaluate information as objectively as possible and reach well-founded conclusions.

Critical thinking example

Thinking critically is a crucial part of academic success, professional development, civic engagement, and personal decision-making.

Table of contents

What is critical thinking, why is critical thinking important, critical thinking strategies.

Critical thinking is the process of evaluating information and arguments in a disciplined and systematic way. It involves questioning assumptions, assessing evidence, and using logical reasoning to form well-reasoned judgments.

Key critical thinking skills:

• Avoiding unfounded assumptions
• Identifying and countering biases
• Recognizing and refuting logical fallacies

These practices enable us to make informed decisions, analyze evidence objectively, consider multiple perspectives, reflect on our own biases, and seek reliable sources.

Critical thinking is enhanced by the deliberate study of biases, logical fallacies, and the different forms of reasoning:

• Deductive reasoning: Drawing specific conclusions from general premises
• Inductive reasoning: Generalizing from specific observations
• Analogical reasoning: Drawing parallels between similar situations
• Abductive reasoning: Inferring the most likely explanation from incomplete evidence

When assessing sources, critical thinking requires evaluating several factors:

• Credibility: Check the author’s qualifications and the publication’s reputation.
• Evidence: Verify that the information is supported by data and references.
• Bias: Identify any potential biases or conflicts of interest.
• Currency: Ensure the information is up-to-date and relevant.
• Purpose: Understand the motivation behind the source and whether it aims to inform, persuade, or sell.

Critical thinking is crucial to decision-making and problem-solving in many domains of life. Social media disinformation and irresponsible uses of AI make it more important than ever to be able to distinguish between credible information and misleading or false content.

Developing critical thinking skills is an essential part of fostering independent thinking, allowing us to:

• Make informed decisions
• Solve complex problems
• Evaluate the logic of arguments

In the process of developing these skills, we become less susceptible to biases, fallacies, and propaganda.

Examples of critical thinking

Critical thinking is an essential part of consuming any form of media, including news, marketing, entertainment, and social media. Media platforms are commonly used to promote biased or manipulative messages, often in a subtle way.

Critical thinking in media example

A news segment claims eating chocolate daily improves cognitive function. After reading more about the research, you find the study had a small sample size and was funded by a chocolate company, indicating bias. This leads you to conclude the claim is unreliable.

Critical thinking is fundamental in logic, math, law, science, and other academic and professional domains. The scientific method is a quintessential example of systematized critical thinking.

Critical thinking in science example

• Formulate a hypothesis.
• Design experiments.
• Analyze data.
• Draw conclusions.
• Revise the hypothesis if necessary.

Academic research requires advanced critical thinking skills.

Critical thinking academic example

• Evaluating the methodology of each study to determine their reliability and validity
• Checking for potential biases, such as funding sources or conflicts of interest
• Comparing the sample sizes and demographics of the studies to understand the context of their findings
• Synthesizing the results, highlighting common trends and discrepancies, and considering the limitations of each study

Critical thinking enhances informed decision-making by equipping us to recognize biases, identify logical fallacies, evaluate evidence, consider alternative perspectives, and learn to identify credible sources.

Key strategies:

• Recognize biases.
• Identify logical fallacies.
• Evaluate sources and evidence.
• Consider alternative perspectives.

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Ideas to Action (i2a)

• What is Critical Thinking?

The ability to think critically calls for a higher-order thinking than simply the ability to recall information.

Definitions of critical thinking, its elements, and its associated activities fill the educational literature of the past forty years. Critical thinking has been described as an ability to question; to acknowledge and test previously held assumptions; to recognize ambiguity; to examine, interpret, evaluate, reason, and reflect; to make informed judgments and decisions; and to clarify, articulate, and justify positions (Hullfish & Smith, 1961; Ennis, 1962; Ruggiero, 1975; Scriven, 1976; Hallet, 1984; Kitchener, 1986; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Mines et al., 1990; Halpern, 1996; Paul & Elder, 2001; Petress, 2004; Holyoak & Morrison, 2005; among others).

After a careful review of the mountainous body of literature defining critical thinking and its elements, UofL has chosen to adopt the language of Michael Scriven and Richard Paul (2003) as a comprehensive, concise operating definition:

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.

Paul and Scriven go on to suggest that critical thinking is based on: "universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions, concepts, empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions, implication and consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints, and frame of reference. Critical thinking - in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes - is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking."

This conceptualization of critical thinking has been refined and developed further by Richard Paul and Linder Elder into the Paul-Elder framework of critical thinking. Currently, this approach is one of the most widely published and cited frameworks in the critical thinking literature. According to the Paul-Elder framework, critical thinking is the:

• Analysis of thinking by focusing on the parts or structures of thinking ("the Elements of Thought")
• Evaluation of thinking by focusing on the quality ("the Universal Intellectual Standards")
• Improvement of thinking by using what you have learned ("the Intellectual Traits")

Selection of a Critical Thinking Framework

The University of Louisville chose the Paul-Elder model of Critical Thinking as the approach to guide our efforts in developing and enhancing our critical thinking curriculum. The Paul-Elder framework was selected based on criteria adapted from the characteristics of a good model of critical thinking developed at Surry Community College. The Paul-Elder critical thinking framework is comprehensive, uses discipline-neutral terminology, is applicable to all disciplines, defines specific cognitive skills including metacognition, and offers high quality resources.

Why the selection of a single critical thinking framework?

The use of a single critical thinking framework is an important aspect of institution-wide critical thinking initiatives (Paul and Nosich, 1993; Paul, 2004). According to this view, critical thinking instruction should not be relegated to one or two disciplines or departments with discipline specific language and conceptualizations. Rather, critical thinking instruction should be explicitly infused in all courses so that critical thinking skills can be developed and reinforced in student learning across the curriculum. The use of a common approach with a common language allows for a central organizer and for the development of critical thinking skill sets in all courses.

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48 Critical Thinking Questions For Any Content Area

Critical thinking questions include, ‘Why is this important? What are the causes and effects of this? How do we know if this is true?”

What Are Critical Thinking Questions For Any Content Area?

by TeachThought Staff

Critical thinking is the heart and soul of learning, and–in our estimation anyway–ultimately more important than any one specific content area or subject matter.

It’s also an over-used and rather nebulous phrase — how do you teach someone to think? Of course, that’s the purpose of education, but how do you effectively optimize that concept into lasting knowledge and the ability to apply it broadly?

Looking for more resources to teach critical thinking? Check out our critical thinking curricula resources on TpT.

What Is Critical Thinking?

This question is what inspires the creation of seemingly endless learning taxonomies and teaching methods: our desire to pin down a clear definition of what it means to think critically and how to introduce that skill in the classroom.

This makes critical thinking questions–well, critical.  As Terry Heick explains in What Does Critical Thinking Mean?:

“To think critically about something is to claim to first circle its meaning entirely—to walk all the way around it so that you understand it in a way that’s uniquely you. The thinker works with their own thinking tools–schema. Background knowledge. Sense of identity. Meaning Making is a process as unique to that thinker as their own thumbprint. There is no template.

After circling the meaning of whatever you’re thinking critically about—navigation necessarily done with bravado and purpose—the thinker can then analyze the thing. In thinking critically, the thinker has to see its parts, its form, its function, and its context.

After this kind of survey and analysis you can come to evaluate it–bring to bear your own distinctive cognition on the thing so that you can point out flaws, underscore bias, emphasize merit—to get inside the mind of the author, designer, creator, or clockmaker and critique his work.”

A Cheat Sheet For Critical Thinking

In short, critical thinking is more than understanding something — it involves evaluation, critiquing, and a depth of knowledge that surpasses the subject itself and expands outward. It requires problem-solving, creativity, rationalization, and a refusal to accept things at face value.

It’s a willingness and ability to question everything.

The Ultimate Cheat Sheet For Digital Thinking by Global Digital Citizen Foundation is an excellent starting point for the ‘how’ behind teaching critical thinking by outlining which questions to ask.

It offers 48 critical thinking questions useful for any content area or even grade level with a little re-working/re-wording. Enjoy the list!

48 Critical Thinking Questions For Any Content Area

See Also:  28 Critical Thinking Question Stems & Response Cards

TeachThought is an organization dedicated to innovation in education through the growth of outstanding teachers.

Critical Thinking in Reading and Composition

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

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• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Critical thinking is the process of independently analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information as a guide to behavior and beliefs.

The American Philosophical Association has defined critical thinking as "the process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment. The process gives reasoned consideration to evidence , contexts , conceptualizations, methods, and criteria" (1990). Critical thinking is sometimes broadly defined as "thinking about thinking."

Critical thinking skills include the ability to interpret, verify, and reason, all of which involve applying the principles of logic . The process of using critical thinking to guide writing is called critical writing .

Observations

• " Critical Thinking is essential as a tool of inquiry. As such, Critical Thinking is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one’s personal and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking, Critical Thinking is a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit." (American Philosophical Association, "Consensus Statement Regarding Critical Thinking," 1990)
• Thought and Language "In order to understand reasoning [...], it is necessary to pay careful attention to the relationship between thought and language . The relationship seems to be straightforward: thought is expressed in and through language. But this claim, while true, is an oversimplification. People often fail to say what they mean. Everyone has had the experience of having their \ misunderstood by others. And we all use words not merely to express our thoughts but also to shape them. Developing our critical thinking skills, therefore, requires an understanding of the ways in which words can (and often fail to) express our thoughts." (William Hughes and Jonathan Lavery, Critical Thinking: An Introduction to the Basic Skills , 4th ed. Broadview, 2004)
• Dispositions That Foster or Impede Critical thinking "Dispositions that foster critical thinking include [a] facility in perceiving irony , ambiguity , and multiplicity of meanings or points of view; the development of open-mindedness, autonomous thought, and reciprocity (Piaget's term for the ability to empathize with other individuals, social groups, nationalities, ideologies, etc.). Dispositions that act as impediments to critical thinking include defense mechanisms (such as absolutism or primary certitude, denial, projection), culturally conditioned assumptions, authoritarianism, egocentrism, and ethnocentrism, rationalization, compartmentalization, stereotyping and prejudice." (Donald Lazere, "Invention, Critical Thinking, and the Analysis of Political Rhetoric." Perspectives on Rhetorical Invention , ed. by Janet M. Atwill and Janice M. Lauer. University of Tennessee Press, 2002)
• Critical Thinking and Composing - "[T]he most intensive and demanding tool for eliciting sustained critical thought is a well-designed writing assignment on a subject matter problem. The underlying premise is that writing is closely linked with thinking and that in presenting students with significant problems to write about—and in creating an environment that demands their best writing—we can promote their general cognitive and intellectual growth. When we make students struggle with their writing, we are making them struggle with thought itself. Emphasizing writing and critical thinking , therefore, generally increases the academic rigor of a course. Often the struggle of writing, linked as it is to the struggle of thinking and to the growth of a person's intellectual powers, awakens students to the real nature of learning." (John C. Bean,  Engaging Ideas: The Professor's Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom , 2nd ed. Wiley, 2011) - "Finding a fresh approach to a writing assignment means that you must see the subject without the blinders of preconception. When people expect to see a thing in a certain way, it usually appears that way, whether or not that is its true image. Similarly, thinking based on prefabricated ideas produces writing that says nothing new, that offers nothing important to the reader. As a writer, you have a responsibility to go beyond the expected views and present your subject so that the reader sees it with fresh eyes. . . . [C]ritical thinking is a fairly systematic method of defining a problem and synthesizing knowledge about it, thereby creating the perspective you need to develop new ideas. . . . " Classical rhetoricians used a series of three questions to help focus an argument . Today these questions can still help writers understand the topic about which they are writing. An sit? (Is the problem a fact?); Quid sit (What is the definition of the problem?); and Quale sit? (What kind of problem is it?). By asking these questions, writers see their subject from many new angles before they begin to narrow the focus to one particular aspect." (Kristin R. Woolever, About Writing: A Rhetoric for Advanced Writers . Wadsworth, 1991)

Logical Fallacies

Ad Misericordiam

Appeal to Authority

Appeal to Force

Appeal to Humor

Appeal to Ignorance

Appeal to the People

Begging the Question

Circular Argument

Complex Question

Contradictory Premises

Dicto Simpliciter , Equivocation

False Analogy

False Dilemma

Gambler's Fallacy

Hasty Generalization

Name-Calling

Non Sequitur

Poisoning the Well

Red Herring

Slippery Slope

Stacking the Deck

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Critical Thinking: Where to Begin

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If you are new to critical thinking or wish to deepen your conception of it, we recommend you review the content below and bookmark this page for future reference.

Our Conception of Critical Thinking...

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness..."

"Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fairminded way. People who think critically attempt, with consistent and conscious effort, to live rationally, reasonably, and empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest.

They strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They strive never to think simplistically about complicated issues and always to consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living , because they realize that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world."

Why Critical Thinking?

The Problem:

Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our lives and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.

A Brief Definition:

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. The Result: 

  A well-cultivated critical thinker:

• raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
• gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;
• comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
• thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
• communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities, and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. Read more about our concept of critical thinking .

The Essential Dimensions of Critical Thinking

Our conception of critical thinking is based on the substantive approach developed by Dr. Richard Paul and his colleagues at the Center and Foundation for Critical Thinking over multiple decades. It is relevant to every subject, discipline, and profession, and to reasoning through the problems of everyday life. It entails five essential dimensions of critical thinking:

At the left is an overview of the first three dimensions. In sum, the elements or structures of thought enable us to "take our thinking apart" and analyze it. The intellectual standards are used to assess and evaluate the elements. The intellectual traits are dispositions of mind embodied by the fairminded critical thinker. To cultivate the mind, we need command of these essential dimensions, and we need to consistently apply them as we think through the many problems and issues in our lives.

The Elements of Reasoning and Intellectual Standards

To learn more about the elements of thought and how to apply the intellectual standards, check out our interactive model. Simply click on the link below, scroll to the bottom of the page, and explore the model with your mouse.

Why the Analysis of Thinking Is Important If you want to think well, you must understand at least the rudiments of thought, the most basic structures out of which all thinking is made. You must learn how to take thinking apart. Analyzing the Logic of a Subject When we understand the elements of reasoning, we realize that all subjects, all disciplines, have a fundamental logic defined by the structures of thought embedded within them. Therefore, to lay bare a subject’s most fundamental logic, we should begin with these questions:

Going Deeper...

The Critical Thinking Bookstore  

Our online bookstore houses numerous books and teacher's manuals , Thinker's Guides , videos , and other educational materials .  

Learn From Our Fellows and Scholars

Watch our Event Calendar , which provides an overview of all upcoming conferences and academies hosted by the Foundation for Critical Thinking. Clicking an entry on the Event Calendar will bring up that event's details, and the option to register. For those interested in online learning, the Foundation offers accredited online courses in critical thinking for both educators and the general public, as well as an online test for evaluating basic comprehension of critical thinking concepts . We are in the process of developing more online learning tools and tests to offer the community.  

Utilizing this Website

This website contains large amounts research and an online library of articles , both of which are freely available to the public. We also invite you to become a member of the Critical Thinking Community , where you will gain access to more tools and materials.  If you cannot locate a resource on a specific topic or concept, try searching for it using our Search Tool . The Search Tool is at the upper-right of every page on the website.

• Schools & departments

Critical thinking

Advice and resources to help you develop your critical voice.

Developing critical thinking skills is essential to your success at University and beyond.  We all need to be critical thinkers to help us navigate our way through an information-rich world. 

Whatever your discipline, you will engage with a wide variety of sources of information and evidence.  You will develop the skills to make judgements about this evidence to form your own views and to present your views clearly.

One of the most common types of feedback received by students is that their work is ‘too descriptive’.  This usually means that they have just stated what others have said and have not reflected critically on the material.  They have not evaluated the evidence and constructed an argument.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the art of making clear, reasoned judgements based on interpreting, understanding, applying and synthesising evidence gathered from observation, reading and experimentation. Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2016)  Essential Study Skills: The Complete Guide to Success at University (4th ed.) London: SAGE, p94.

Being critical does not just mean finding fault.  It means assessing evidence from a variety of sources and making reasoned conclusions.  As a result of your analysis you may decide that a particular piece of evidence is not robust, or that you disagree with the conclusion, but you should be able to state why you have come to this view and incorporate this into a bigger picture of the literature.

Being critical goes beyond describing what you have heard in lectures or what you have read.  It involves synthesising, analysing and evaluating what you have learned to develop your own argument or position.

Critical thinking is important in all subjects and disciplines – in science and engineering, as well as the arts and humanities.  The types of evidence used to develop arguments may be very different but the processes and techniques are similar.  Critical thinking is required for both undergraduate and postgraduate levels of study.

What, where, when, who, why, how?

Purposeful reading can help with critical thinking because it encourages you to read actively rather than passively.  When you read, ask yourself questions about what you are reading and make notes to record your views.  Ask questions like:

• What is the main point of this paper/ article/ paragraph/ report/ blog?
• Who wrote it?
• Why was it written?
• When was it written?
• Has the context changed since it was written?
• Is the evidence presented robust?
• How did the authors come to their conclusions?
• Do you agree with the conclusions?
• What does this add to our knowledge?
• Why is it useful?

Our web page covering Reading at university includes a handout to help you develop your own critical reading form and a suggested reading notes record sheet.  These resources will help you record your thoughts after you read, which will help you to construct your argument. 

Reading at university

Developing an argument

Being a university student is about learning how to think, not what to think.  Critical thinking shapes your own values and attitudes through a process of deliberating, debating and persuasion.   Through developing your critical thinking you can move on from simply disagreeing to constructively assessing alternatives by building on doubts.

There are several key stages involved in developing your ideas and constructing an argument.  You might like to use a form to help you think about the features of critical thinking and to break down the stages of developing your argument.

Features of critical thinking (pdf)

Features of critical thinking (Word rtf)

Our webpage on Academic writing includes a useful handout ‘Building an argument as you go’.

Academic writing

You should also consider the language you will use to introduce a range of viewpoints and to evaluate the various sources of evidence.  This will help your reader to follow your argument.  To get you started, the University of Manchester's Academic Phrasebank has a useful section on Being Critical. 

Academic Phrasebank

Developing your critical thinking

Set yourself some tasks to help develop your critical thinking skills.  Discuss material presented in lectures or from resource lists with your peers.  Set up a critical reading group or use an online discussion forum.  Think about a point you would like to make during discussions in tutorials and be prepared to back up your argument with evidence.

For more suggestions:

Developing your critical thinking - ideas (pdf)

Developing your critical thinking - ideas (Word rtf)

Published guides

For further advice and more detailed resources please see the Critical Thinking section of our list of published Study skills guides.

Study skills guides  

This article was published on 2024-02-26

75 Critical Thinking Essay Topics

Critical thinking requires students to think for themselves, question everything, and look at both sides of an issue before coming to a conclusion. In critical thinking essay writing, these same skills are applied to examine a topic more closely. In this type of essay, the writer must not only present their own opinion on the subject but must also back it up with evidence and reasoning.

Critical thinking essays can be challenging to write depending on the topic, course, and length of the assignment. However, there are some tips and tricks that can make the process a little bit easier. Take a look at our detailed guide breaking down the components of an excellent critical thinking essay, and consider using any of our 75 critical thinking essay topics at the end to get started.

Essential Things to Consider When Writing a Critical Thinking Essay

When writing a critical thinking essay, students must look past surface-level information and delve deeper into the subject matter. This requires a lot of research and analysis, which can be tough for some students. However, if you take the time to plan your essay and follow these tips, you should be able to write a great critical thinking essay that will impress your instructor.

1. Do Your Research

Before you can start writing your essay, you need to make sure that you have enough evidence to support your claims. This means doing a lot of research on your topic. Try to find reliable sources from experts in the field that you can use to back up your points. Once you have gathered all of your evidence, you can plan out your essay.

2. Create An Outline

An outline will help keep your thoughts organized and ensure that you don’t forget any vital information. Your outline should include a thesis, an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each part of your outline should also have a few key details that you want to discuss to help make the writing process go smoothly.

3. Write A Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement is the most essential part of your essay. It should be a clear and concise statement that presents your argument. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction and reaffirmed in your conclusion.

It is important to note that because this is a critical thinking essay, your thesis should be more than just a statement of fact. Instead, it should be an arguable claim that you will be defending throughout your essay.

For example, if you are writing about the death penalty, your thesis statement needs to be more than, “The death penalty is wrong.” This thesis doesn’t leave room for discussion or debate. A better thesis statement would be, “The death penalty is a violation of human rights and it should be abolished.” This thesis statement presents an argument that can be debated and discussed.

4. Write The Introduction

Your introduction should start with a hook that grabs the reader’s attention. You can use a surprising statistic, a quote, or a rhetorical question. After the hook, you should provide some background information on your topic. This will help orient the reader and give them context for your argument. Finally, you should end your introduction with your thesis statement.

5. Write The Body Paragraphs

Each body paragraph should start with a topic sentence that introduces the paragraph’s main point. The rest of the paragraph should be used to support this point with evidence and reasoning. You should have at least three body paragraphs in your essay, but you can have more if needed.

Pro Tip: Critical thinking essays examine and analyze – they don’t just restate facts. When presenting your evidence, be sure to discuss it critically. What are the implications of this evidence? How does it support your argument?

6. Write The Conclusion

The conclusion of a critical thinking essay should be just as strong as the introduction. You should start by restating your thesis statement. Then, you should provide a brief summary of the main points of your essay. Finally, you should end with a strong closing statement that leaves the reader thinking about your argument long after they finish reading, such as a call to action or a final thought-provoking question.

Citing Sources in a Critical Thinking Essay

Since this type of essay will rely on evidence and reasoning, it is important to use credible sources. Be sure to only use reliable sources from experts in the field. When you do use sources, be sure to cite them properly. This will show that you are using other people’s work ethically, and it will also help strengthen your argument by showing that you have looked at the issue from multiple perspectives.

Citing sources has many different rules that you will need to follow depending on the formatting style that you are using. The most common formatting styles are MLA, APA, and Chicago. Be sure to check with your professor to see which style they prefer before you start writing your essay.

When citing in MLA format, you’ll need to use in-text citations. These are brief citations included in the body of your essay whenever you use a source. The full citation for each source is listed in the Works Cited section at the end of your paper.

When citing in APA format, you’ll need to use in-text citations and a reference list. The in-text citations are brief citations included in the body of your essay whenever you use a source. The reference list is a list of all the sources that you used – usually included at the end of your paper.

When citing in Chicago style, you’ll need to use footnotes or endnotes. These are brief citations at the bottom of each page (footnotes) or the end of your paper (endnotes).

Any of these 75 critical thinking essay topics will help students struggling to find an arguable and interesting topic.

Critical Thinking Essay Topics About Social Issues

• Is democracy the best form of government?
• Is capitalism good or bad?
• Is socialism a viable alternative to capitalism?
• Does religion do more harm than good?
• Should creationism be taught in schools?
• Is the death penalty ethical?
• Are zoos cruel?
• Is it ethical to eat meat?
• Is climate change real?
• Who is responsible for climate change?
• Should wealthy nations do more to help developing nations?
• Is immigration a good or bad thing?
• What are the root causes of terrorism?
• Is terrorism ever justified?
• Are gun laws too strict or not strict enough?
• Is healthcare a human right?
• Should abortion be legal?
• What are the ethical implications of stem cell research?
• What should be done about the global water crisis?
• How can we best help refugees?

Critical Thinking Essay Topics About General Issues

• Should people be judged by their looks?
• Is it better to be single or in a relationship?
• Are men and women equal?
• Should parents be held responsible for their children’s actions?
• Is it better to grow up with siblings or as an only child?
• Should the drinking age be lowered?
• Is drug legalization a good or bad idea?
• What are the best ways to deal with stress?
• How can we prevent bullying?
• Are social media and technology making us more or less connected?
• Should parents monitor their children’s internet use?
• Should schools ban cell phones?
• How can we reduce the number of teenage pregnancies?
• What is the best way to deal with teenage rebellion?
• Is homeschooling a good or bad idea?
• Should all students be required to learn a foreign language?
• Should schools start later in the morning?
• Are there better alternatives to traditional schooling?
• Is college tuition too high?
• Should student loans be forgiven?
• Should colleges be free to attend?
• What are the best ways to prepare for a job interview?
• How can we better retain employees?
• What are the best ways to motivate employees?
• How can we reduce workplace stress?
• Should remote working be encouraged?
• What are the pros and cons of globalization?
• Is consumerism a good or bad thing?
• How can we reduce our reliance on fossil fuels?

Critical Thinking Essay Topics About The Environment and Conservation

• What are the best ways to reduce pollution?
• Should we be doing more to conserve water?
• How can we reduce food waste?
• Is nuclear energy a good or bad thing?
• What are the best ways to deal with climate change?
• Is overpopulation a real problem?
• What can we do to reduce our reliance on plastic?
• Should we be doing more to protect endangered species?
• How can we best preserve our natural resources?
• What is the best way to deal with hazardous waste?
• What are the best ways to reduce deforestation?

Critical Thinking Essay Topics About Technology

• Should we be doing more to regulate the internet?
• How can we best protect our privacy online?
• What are the best ways to deal with cyberbullying?
• Is social media a good or bad thing?
• Are we too reliant on technology?
• What are the best ways to deal with data breaches?
• Should we be worried about artificial intelligence?
• What are the best ways to deal with tech monopolies?

Critical Thinking Essay Topics About American Classics

• Explore the theme of capitalism in Fight Club.
• What is the significance of the title The Great Gatsby?
• Is Atticus Finch a good father?
• What is the significance of the title To Kill a Mockingbird?
• Is Holden Caulfield a sympathetic character?
• How does Steinbeck portray the American dream in The Grapes of Wrath?
• How does Fitzgerald use symbolism in The Great Gatsby?

When writing on any of these 75 critical thinking essay topics, be sure to support your position with solid reasoning, examples, and evidence.

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Testimonials

Critical Thinking Is About Asking Better Questions

by John Coleman

Summary .   

Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and effectively break down an issue in order to make a decision or find a solution. At the heart of critical thinking is the ability to formulate deep, different, and effective questions. For effective questioning, start by holding your hypotheses loosely. Be willing to fundamentally reconsider your initial conclusions — and do so without defensiveness. Second, listen more than you talk through active listening. Third, leave your queries open-ended, and avoid yes-or-no questions. Fourth, consider the counterintuitive to avoid falling into groupthink. Fifth, take the time to stew in a problem, rather than making decisions unnecessarily quickly. Last, ask thoughtful, even difficult, follow-ups.

Are you tackling a new and difficult problem at work? Recently promoted and trying to both understand your new role and bring a fresh perspective? Or are you new to the workforce and seeking ways to meaningfully contribute alongside your more experienced colleagues? If so, critical thinking — the ability to analyze and effectively break down an issue in order to make a decision or find a solution — will be core to your success. And at the heart of critical thinking is the ability to formulate deep, different, and effective questions.

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105 Critical Thinking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Critical thinking is a skill that is highly valued in today's society. It involves analyzing and evaluating information to form well-reasoned judgments and make informed decisions. Critical thinking essays require students to think critically and present their arguments in a logical and coherent manner.

If you are struggling to come up with a topic for your critical thinking essay, here are 105 ideas and examples to get you started:

• The impact of social media on personal relationships
• The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom learning
• The role of technology in shaping society
• The ethical implications of genetic engineering
• The influence of media on body image
• The pros and cons of globalization
• The impact of climate change on the environment
• The benefits and drawbacks of using renewable energy sources
• The role of governments in addressing income inequality
• The impact of artificial intelligence on the job market
• The ethics of animal testing in scientific research
• The influence of advertising on consumer behavior
• The role of education in reducing poverty
• The benefits and challenges of multiculturalism
• The impact of video games on children's behavior
• The morality of capital punishment
• The implications of legalized marijuana
• The influence of religion on politics
• The consequences of plastic pollution in oceans
• The role of media in shaping public opinion
• The ethics of human cloning
• The impact of social class on opportunities in life
• The benefits and drawbacks of nuclear energy
• The effects of income inequality on societal well-being
• The role of censorship in the media
• The implications of mass surveillance on privacy rights
• The influence of gender stereotypes on career choices
• The ethics of euthanasia
• The impact of fast food on public health
• The role of technology in reducing poverty in developing countries
• The benefits and challenges of artificial intelligence in healthcare
• The consequences of deforestation on biodiversity
• The influence of cultural norms on individual behavior
• The ethics of animal rights
• The implications of overpopulation on resources
• The impact of social media on political activism
• The benefits and drawbacks of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
• The role of education in combating climate change
• The effects of income inequality on social mobility
• The influence of gender roles on relationships
• The ethics of assisted suicide
• The consequences of air pollution on public health
• The role of technology in promoting equality
• The benefits and challenges of space exploration
• The implications of consumerism on the environment
• The impact of social media on mental health
• The ethics of animal captivity in zoos
• The influence of cultural diversity on creativity
• The consequences of water scarcity on agriculture
• The role of media in promoting stereotypes
• The benefits and drawbacks of online shopping
• The effects of income inequality on crime rates
• The influence of gender inequality on economic development
• The ethics of genetic testing
• The implications of nuclear weapons on global security
• The impact of social media on democracy
• The benefits and challenges of autonomous vehicles
• The role of education in promoting tolerance and acceptance
• The consequences of plastic waste on marine life
• The influence of cultural appropriation on identity
• The ethics of animal agriculture
• The implications of deforestation on indigenous communities
• The impact of social media on self-esteem
• The benefits and drawbacks of online dating
• The effects of income inequality on education
• The influence of gender stereotypes on leadership positions
• The ethics of human organ trafficking
• The consequences of pollution on wildlife
• The role of technology in promoting sustainable development
• The benefits and challenges of renewable energy
• The implications of cultural assimilation on diversity
• The impact of social media on fake news
• The ethics of animal experimentation in cosmetics industry
• The influence of cultural relativism on human rights
• The consequences of soil erosion on food security
• The role of media in perpetuating stereotypes
• The benefits and drawbacks of virtual reality
• The effects of income inequality on healthcare access
• The influence of gender inequality on domestic violence
• The ethics of surrogacy
• The implications of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems
• The impact of social media on youth activism
• The benefits and challenges of 3D printing
• The role of education in promoting sustainable consumption
• The consequences of industrial agriculture on biodiversity
• The influence of cultural globalization on cultural heritage
• The ethics of animal entertainment in circuses
• The implications of cultural imperialism on local traditions
• The impact of social media on political polarization
• The benefits and drawbacks of autonomous drones
• The effects of income inequality on mental health
• The influence of gender stereotypes on STEM fields
• The ethics of human trafficking
• The consequences of noise pollution on human health
• The role of technology in promoting social justice
• The benefits and challenges of biofuels
• The implications of cultural appropriation on indigenous cultures
• The impact of social media on cyberbullying
• The ethics of animal extinction caused by human activities
• The influence of cultural stereotypes on interracial relationships
• The consequences of plastic packaging on waste management
• The role of media in promoting consumerism
• The benefits and drawbacks of cryptocurrency
• The effects of income inequality on political participation
• The influence of gender inequality on human development

These essay topics cover a wide range of critical thinking subjects, allowing you to choose the one that interests you the most or aligns with your academic goals. Remember to research your chosen topic thoroughly and present a well-supported argument in your essay. Critical thinking is all about analyzing information and forming an evidence-based opinion, so make sure to approach your essay with a critical mindset.

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What Is Critical Thinking? 6 Things You Should Know

• The Speaker Lab
• September 6, 2024

Table of Contents

Ever found yourself at a crossroads, weighing the pros and cons of a decision that could change everything? That’s critical thinking in action. Critical thinking isn’t exclusively the realm of academics or intellectuals; it’s a practical ability we employ daily. In fact, it’s one that you’re using right now as you decide whether to keep reading.

Critical thinking is defined as the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment. This process isn’t about what you think but how you think. In this article, we’re going to take a closer look at critical thinking, from its origins to its modern-day implications and applications. Join in, and you’ll learn how to work through those complex problems with ease. So what are you waiting for? Let’s get started.

Understanding Critical Thinking

At first, critical thinking just sounds like a fancy term we’ve all heard a million times. But when you get down to it, it’s actually our secret weapon for navigating a world chock-full of information and decisions.

When you think critically, you are engaging in an intellectually disciplined process where you skillfully conceptualize, apply, analyze, synthesize, and/or evaluate information gathered from observation, experience, reflection, researching, or communication. Instead of just taking things at face-value, you do the math yourself to make sure the claims others are making are actually logical conclusions.

To be clear, critical thinking is not about doubting everything under the sun. It’s more like being that detective in a mystery novel who sifts through clues carefully in order to make connections. It’s about looking at info and saying, “Okay, but why?” or “Says who?” before making up your mind. Every bit of info is potential evidence leading towards smarter decisions—that’s what critical thinking is all about. Embracing this approach can help you navigate decisions like what products to buy or what news sources to trust without relying on gut feelings alone.

The Intellectual Roots of Critical Thinking

Although it may sound strange to think about critical thinking having a history, it does. Ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were the early pioneers. Far from merely draping themselves in togas and mulling over philosophical concepts, they laid the groundwork for a culture of perpetual inquiry.

Fast forward to the 20th century, and thinkers like John Dewey and Edward Glaser took this baton further. They evolved critical thinking into what we know today. In fact, Edward Glaser gave us a clear definition of critical thinking, something that has proved difficult due to contesting views of critical thinking . According to Glaser, critical thinking is “a persistent effort to examine any…supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it.” (To read Glaser’s whole definition, find the full quote from his book here .)

Riding on his coattails was Richard Paul, who believed in reasoning through problems systematically—a disciplined process if you will—that involves skillfully conceptualizing, analyzing, and evaluating information gathered from observation or experience. While Paul’s definition does not contradict Glaser’s, it does provide more specifics.

Today, our ability to solve complex puzzles in everyday life is all thanks to the groundwork laid down by these intellectuals.

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The Process of Critical Thinking

Like any other skill, critical thinking is one that can improve with practice. But before you can get started, it’s helpful to break this exercise down into steps. Let’s take a look.

• Identify the problem or question: This step is about understanding exactly what’s on your plate.
• Gather relevant information: Now we’re talking detective work. Dive into research like Sherlock Holmes and collect those facts.
• Analyze the evidence: Time to put on your thinking cap. Look at that info you gathered and start connecting dots.
• Consider alternative perspectives: What would your opponent say? In other words, are there other ways of looking at this situation? Considering different viewpoints is key here.
• Draw conclusions based on evidence and reasoning: Once you’ve evaluated the situation, it’s time to make your judgement call.

No matter what kind of decisions you encounter, critical thinking will always prove helpful. And it’s not just for the academic or analytically-minded either. It’s for anyone who’s willing to go beyond surface-level and challenge their own assumptions. It’s a little like having a superpower, but instead of leaping tall buildings, you’re navigating complex issues with grace and precision. So, next time life throws a curveball, you know exactly how to hit it out of the park.

The Role of Open-Mindedness in Critical Thinking

Building critical thinking skills is all about asking questions and challenging assumptions—yours included. By being open to new ideas, we can dodge biases that blindside us and embrace richer understanding instead. Diverse perspectives don’t just add color; they help us solve problems more creatively and make decisions more wisely. By making room at the table for everyone, you’ll find that better solutions bubble up from unexpected places.

If the idea of questioning your own assumptions makes you nervous, then know it doesn’t have to be an anxiety-inducing experience. As Aristotle once quipped, “It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.” In other words, you don’t have to completely dismantle your belief system every time you consider an opposing idea. The idea here is that you’re just hearing the other side out. After all, who knows? They may have a point you’ve never considered before.

So next time you catch yourself shutting down an unfamiliar idea or perspective before giving it due consideration, pause. Ask yourself: what might I discover if I listen? What bridges could this build? Becoming truly great at critical thinking requires this openness. It allows our thoughts to avoid echo chambers that stifle growth. So let’s stay curious together because by welcoming different angles, we enrich not only ourselves but also those around us.

Improving Your Critical Thinking Skills

Once you have a handle on what critical thinking looks like practically, you’re ready to start improving your critical thinking skills. To get started, consider the steps below.

• Question everything: This doesn’t mean doubting every single thing around you but being curious about why things are the way they are.
• Dive into diverse perspectives: Listen to podcasts and read books from authors that challenge your views. Growth lives in discomfort.
• Analyze, then analyze some more: When faced with information or an argument, break it down. What’s being said? Why? By whom? Investigate the proof and critically evaluate its trustworthiness.
• Solve problems systematically: If you have a problem, approach it step by step. Define it clearly first; brainstorm solutions next; choose one option after weighing options carefully; implement; and review results. Rinse and repeat as necessary.
• Meditate on mistakes: Reflection is key. Don’t just move past errors—learn what went wrong to avoid repeating history.

Becoming better at critical thinking doesn’t happen overnight. Think of it as building muscle: consistent effort pays off big time. Keep pushing and you’ll have your critical thinking skills sharpened in no time.

Using Creativity and Critical Thinking to Problem Solve

The more you hone your critical thinking skills, the more you’ll find yourself thinking outside the box. The result? A healthy creativity. When combined, these two powerhouse skills prove exceptionally effective for solving complex problems. It’s not just about finding a solution; it’s about crafting the smartest, most innovative one.

Imagine you’re faced with a gnarly problem. If you try to use a conventional approach, there seems to be no way forward. But with a little creativity, you gain a fresh perspective. To achieve this fresh perspective, consider the steps below.

• Step back: Sometimes, we’re too close to see clearly. Taking a step back lets our creative juices flow.
• Mix things up: Applying ideas from different domains can spark unique solutions no one saw coming.
• Rethink assumptions: What if the “problem” isn’t really the problem? Questioning what we’ve always believed could unexpectedly simplify our journey ahead.

This blend of critical thinking skills, like analysis and evaluation, with a dash of creative zest doesn’t just solve problems systematically—it does so with flair. Creativity nudges us to “what if?” until obstacles don’t look so daunting anymore. So next time you’re facing down a beast of an issue, know that with creativity and critical thought on your side, you’re unstoppable.

Demonstrating Your Critical Thinking in Professional Settings

Once you’ve honed those critical thinking skills, it’s time to put them to work. Specifically, we’re talking about putting them on your resume. Potential employers love seeing critical thinking skills in their job candidates, because it means you can problem solve and think outside the box. However, if you can’t showcase these abilities on your resume, it’s like they don’t even exist to potential employers. Let’s fix that.

Crafting a Resume That Highlights Your Skills

To get started, you’re going to need to include key words on your resume . In the current job market, this is an essential step for any resume. Why? Because it’s necessary for getting past the applicant tracking systems (ATS). Increasingly common, these machines process applications before a human even lays eyes on them. To sort through resumes, the machine is given key words to look for, and any resume that lacks these key words is culled. If you want to make it past the ATS, consider these steps.

• Analyze This: Under each job title on your resume, use bullet points to highlight how you’ve used analytical skills to solve problems or make decisions at past jobs.
• Evidence-Based Wins: Employers love results. Showcase instances where your critical analysis led to measurable success for projects or teams.
• Vocab Matters: Use words like “analyzed,” “evaluated,” and “implemented” to describe your problem-solving prowess.
• Show Don’t Tell: Toss out vague claims of being a “team player.” Instead, detail specific scenarios where you collaborated effectively using clear logic and reasoning.

To really stand out, tailor each application by weaving relevant terms found in the job description into your narrative. Promote your skills like this, and watch as interview invites start rolling in more than ever before.

Evaluating Sources for Credibility

A big part of critical thinking involves discerning the credibility of sources. After all, in a world overflowing with information, not everything you stumble upon is going to be the golden truth. That’s why sound evidence and sharp research skills aren’t just nice-to-haves; they’re your armor in the battle against misinformation. By dispelling falsehoods and exposing faulty sources, you can uncover the truth of the matter. This skill is particularly helpful when you’re writing a persuasive speech or a research essay.

• Analyze the source: Look at where your info is coming from. Is it reputable? What’s their track record like?
• Check for bias: Every story has two sides. Make sure you’re getting both angles to avoid falling into an echo chamber.
• Cross-reference facts: One source says one thing; another says something slightly different. Who’s right? Cross-check those details across multiple reliable sources.

Whether you’re a university student writing a term paper or a mom shopping for washable couch covers, being able to find a source you can trust is important. So arm yourself with these critical analysis skills because knowing how to evaluate credibility isn’t just about winning debates or acing papers—it’s about making informed decisions in every aspect of life.

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Together, we’ve navigated the intricate waters of critical thinking, exploring its core, history, methodology, and its relevance today. It’s not just an academic term gathering dust in textbooks; it’s the silent engine powering decisions big and small. Because when life throws puzzles your way, critical thinking is there to walk you through them. And when you pair it with creativity? You can problem solve in a way that will leave your employers impressed.

So remember, critical thinking isn’t just for stuffy academics. It’s for everyone, helping make life richer, work smarter, arguments sounder, and even making us all-around sharper individuals.

• Last Updated: September 11, 2024

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175 Critical Thinking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best critical thinking topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on critical thinking, 🥇 most interesting critical thinking topics to write about, ✅ simple & easy critical thinking essay titles, ❓ critical thinking essay questions.

• What Is Critical Thinking? A critical thinker makes his decisions based on broad and in-depth analysis of the evidence and thereafter communicates the beliefs accurately and clearly. Ennis in his book “The Cornell Critical Thinking Tests” defines critical thinking […]
• Critical Thinking: Reason, Emotion, Communication Sally’s example shows that a lack of critical thinking may result in emotional distress and the individual’s inability to take weighed decisions.
• The Role of Technology in Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills Modern technologies are effective in enhancing critical thinking skills because they expose teachers and students to valuable information and allow them to develop their research competencies.
• Perception and Critical Thinking: The Relations Between the Cognitive Processes Critical thinking is possible if different parts of the brain adequately assess the relevance of various external stimuli.
• Critical Thinking Role in the Clinical Psychology These activities and conducts may lead a psychologist to identify the mental activities in the brain of the individual. Clinical psychologists specialization is founded on the framework the individual takes in training to become a […]
• Disadvantages of Modern Technology for Critical Thinking Due to the ubiquity of the Internet, people have access to all sources of information, libraries, research, etc. Modern technologies open access to knowledge to everyone, but at the same time, they do not provide […]
• Critical Thinking: Definition and Characteristics One of the concept’s definitions is “the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment”. Ryan proposes a similar explanation, “Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment”.
• Using CTQs and CTDs to Develop Critical Thinking CTQ and CTD can help a person develop critical thinking, as it is an algorithm of actions and a set of questions, the study of which directs the brain to the process of critical thinking.
• Death Penalty: Critical Thinking and Arguments The execution sermons of the early colonies were full of warnings against following in the footsteps of the condemned, and executions were public events designed to instill fear and reverence for the law in the […]
• Political Sciences: Nelson Mandela as a Critical Thinker One of the aspects that make Mandela a critical thinker is his ability to reflect on ideas, beliefs, arguments, and conclusions.
• Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement Critical thinking is a unique approach to a situation that allows a to analyze the available information to come to conclusions. Therefore, it is essential to include the development of critical thinking skills in the […]
• Critical Thinking. Asking the Right Questions Questions are the essence of study and cognition, consequently, the ability to ask questions is at the center of any thinking process, especially critical thinking, which is aimed at reviewing and analyzing.
• The Importance of Critical Thinking at Work I have a strong ability to learn the most from all situations and recall similar situations that I have been in before in an attempt to decide what to do.
• Critical Thinking in Nursing Practice The necessary improvement can be made by prioritizing critical thinking in the training process and providing the students with tools to develop this ability during everyday life activities. Critical thinking relates to the processes of […]
• Critical Thinking in Junot Diaz’s “The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao” Noteworthy, the relationship between Oscar and Ybon is used as an example of the relationships that occur between members of the South American immigrants in the US. Yet, he holds to the stereotypic belief that […]
• Critical Thinking: Knowledge and Understanding In spite of the fact that knowledge enhances the intellectual capacity of the people, it deprives them of the ability to think critically about the information that they have amassed.
• The Importance of Critical Thinking in Education These characteristics of critical thinking are valuable for the teaching profession and their development and improvement can help to considerably increase the quality of teaching.
• The Nature of Arguments and Critical Thinking An example is: Alaska is one of the states of the United States of America. This is the reasoning to which the standard of validity or logical correctness can be applied.
• Critical Thinking: Mindsets and Biases Most of the perceptions that people have about most of the things in this world are shaped by mindsets and biases.
• Does Group Discussion Improve Critical Thinking Skills? And a divisive question among psychologists and educators is the use of group work and discussion as a means to develop critical thinking.
• Public Speaking: Ethics and Critical Thinking The audience should be able to trust the speaker. The speaker will also use valid arguments and facts before presenting his or her findings to the audience.
• Examples of Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement The eight elements of thought in critical thinking will outline the model and provide a blueprint to the development of new policies and strategies.
• Critical Thinking. Start-Up Success and Growth Vic Ahmed, the founder of Innovation Pavilion, can be considered a successful entrepreneur as he can take risks, which is one of a businessman’s essential qualities. The factor determining their progress is based on a […]
• Critical Thinking: Thought and Intellectual Standard Elements of thoughts and intellectual standards are very vital parts of the critical thinking process and this essay will look at some of the elements of thoughts and intellectual standards in details.
• Critical Thinking and Decisions Making in Business, Management and Relationships Critical thinking is one of the most important skills required in making various decisions that pertain to business, management, relationships, and every other aspect of life.
• Assumptions and Critical Thinking Assumptions refer to the things that a researcher might take for granted in the research process, yet they are very important, as far as the success of the research is concerned. An individual is encouraged […]
• The Importance of Critical Thinking Consequently, a manager may rely on the CT technique of using ISs to aid in DM by examining the nature of information exchange and generating a sound stance toward resolving an issue.
• Critical Thinking: Immigrants’ Experiences The present paper analyzes the experiences of immigrants from Japan, China, and Mexico, as well as the history of Black Americans in the North.
• Critical Thinking on the Border Crossings Argument Since both of these factors are morally unimportant, they should not constitute restrictions on the movement of people across borders. Therefore: Morally unimportant factors are not a valid argument for prohibiting the suppression of states’ […]
• International Drug Trafficking: Critical Thinking Moreover, it is of concern that the power of drug traffickers is constantly growing and that they are influencing the economic and political affairs of cities.
• Learning Strategies for Critical Thinking It improves the students’ comprehension skills of the acquired material, as they learn to obtain the necessary information. Finally, it encourages teamwork, as they cooperate to achieve the goals.
• Importance of Encouraging Critical Thinking Moreover, the method of forward-thinking, which contributes to improving critical thinking by developing optimism and logic in students, will be implemented.
• Instructional Strategies for Critical Thinking The most notable strategies include the use of other points of view, reading a lot, and analyzing things as they are seen.
• Media Literacy and Critical Thinking Skills Media literacy implies an understanding by the audience of the basic principles of the work of the media, including the search for the necessary information, understanding the principles of the formation of messages by different […]
• Decision Making, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking Because there is a low retention rate in the profession. Why is there a low retention rate in the profession?
• Assumptions and Critical Thinking: Overview Implicitness, as the ability to contain information that is not explicitly expressed, is a category of text that is complex, integral, and has various ways of manifestation. The difference is that in the first case, […]
• Perception and Critical Thinking Critical thinking is an essential ability that helps people investigate the environment, find information, and make decisions. The scenario above is an example of critical thinking that is essential for individuals.
• Importance of Critical Thinking As for the heart of the matter, it is essential to define three types of thinking here: comparative, ideological, and empirical. Empirical thinking is the thinking of facts and the conclusions that are possible from […]
• The Role in Education in Critical Thinking Development I try to walk the audience through my research process using critical thinking, and I see improved results in their response.
• Teamwork and Critical Thinking The analyst role is essential to team thinking in nursing practice because it enables the nurses to realize all the aspects of the situation, providing a wider view.
• Critical Thinking in Diagnosing Sepsis Most likely, this is a generalized nonspecific infectious and inflammatory process caused by the penetration of uroinfectious pathogens and their toxins into the bloodstream. The abdomen of the patient is soft, flat and non-tender, with […]
• Critical Thinking in the Medical Field The strengths that can contribute to my success as a critical thinker are empathy, attention to detail, and problem-solving skills. Critical thinking is correlated with an entire set of different skills as it can be […]
• Critical Thinking Incident in Clinical Nursing The confusion resulting in the outcomes is caused by the continuous and demanding activities undertaken by the providers and the failure to inquire about the effects of the action taken.
• Critical Thinking Elements in Nursing The ability to introduce the elements of critical thinking into problem management and address patients’ needs is one of the principal skills that students will have to develop to have a proper clinical practice.
• Critical Thinking in a Personal Decision However, the anticipated outcome of the solution is to create a way to reflect on my past while reevaluating the decisions I made back then and starting afresh, and therefore, this decision will give me […]
• How to Teach Your Child to Be a Critical Thinker The use of particular methods, tactics, and strategies of encouragement is the key to the development of a unique system of judgments and certain abilities, skills, and talents in solving difficult moments.
• Critical Thinking and Decision Making In the first journal entry, the heart of the matter or the core issue in a situation was noted to be the most essential in ensuring that it is solved properly.
• Critical Thinking and What Constitutes This Ability One, a critical thinker must have the ability to engage in both independent and reflective thinking. The other standard blocks associated with critical thinking are that a person must be willing to reflect on the […]
• Creative and Critical Thinking in Case of Lack of Water In order to identify the significance of creative and critical thinking in the situation presented, it is necessary to dwell on the definition of the process of creative thinking.
• Discussion of Critical Thinking I believe this study qualifies to be the primary data source for the investigation of the relationship between the reputation of the seller and their performance in the market.
• Critical Thinking: Multinational Strategic Management At some point in the management of this organization, the policies that have been formulated to ensure that the operations of the firm are smooth and efficient have failed in application. This is because they […]
• Critical Thinking in the Writing Process The academic writing process can be summarized by five distinctive stages. First, the discovery and investigation stages require writers to engage with sources.
• “Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to Teach Critical Thinking…” by Nentl Information should be synthesized during the academic writing process. The first part of the process is knowledge, a type of category that involves remembering information.
• Critical Thinking: Examining the Claims About Salespeople The third claim to be examined is the assertion that salespeople are not doing a great job and, therefore, have to be kicked out from the organization in order to help the management improve sales.
• Critical Thinking Activity Overview For this critical thinking activity, I decided to watch the episodes of a Reality TV show and a News show whose the main purposes are entertainment and the provocation of emotions.
• Ethical Understandings and Critical Thinking in Education The success of the paradigm reflects the dramatic change in the perception of education goals that has happened throughout the last century.
• Critical Thinking and Practice of the Registered Nurse There is a lot of proficiency that can be gained in relation to reasoning and this is where critical thinking comes in.
• Use of Critical Thinking in the Diagnostic Process With the realization that the responses provided by patients are foundational in diagnoses, it is emphasized that nurses need to encompass CT during nursing diagnoses as this helps in unraveling the complexity and uniqueness of […]
• Applying Critical Thinking Processes to Professional Practice The 8 phases of clinical reasoning helped the team understand and analyse the contextual factors contributing to Jenny’s health and identify roles of health professionals involved in the case management.
• Critical Thinking of Palestine For instance, the levels of suffering and poverty have increased in the region due to the problem of desertification. Learners should consider such issues and be ready to be part of the problem.
• The Issue of Traffic Congestion in Atlanta: Composition and Critical Thinking In the following paper, the issue of traffic congestion in Atlanta will be addressed in terms of its possible solutions that could be implemented with the aim of solving it.
• Warnick’s “Critical Thinking and Communication” Book’s Marketing Analysis The book “Critical Thinking and Communication: The Use of Reason in Argument ” by Edward Inch and Barbara Warnick can be evaluated as one of the best textbooks on the art of rhetoric, developing arguments, […]
• Critical Thinking in a Work-Related Decision It was at that instance that Larry paid a lot of attention and told Scott that his uncle owned a condo in the exact region Scott intended to visit.
• Steve Williams on Critical Thinking Review The following are the processes that he recommends to be taken; The first step in making a good decision is defining the challenge that calls for a decision to be made.
• Whistleblowing Is an Act Representative of Critical Thinkers Analyzing the definitions of “whistleblowing” and “critical thinking”, it is possible to make a conclusion that these concepts have similar meanings.
• Whistleblowing and Representation of Critical Thinkers In Allegory of the Cave, the Plato presents the idea that a person who has seen the fire or “the light” is able to see the reality and the truth.
• Obesity Tackling on Critical Thinking Standards It is impossible to stop the implementation of technology and invention in daily life. The solutions of the reasoning are accurate in the way that it is dealt with in this paper.
• Critical Thinking in the Medical Care Delivery System Issues pertaining to truth or mission of truth is a frustrating, discouraging, tiring, and long journey because most of the individuals who have industries or organizations ties may attempt to mislead other people.
• Critical Thinking With Obesity Technically, obesity is a condition of the human body in which the bodyweight of an individual is much higher than the normal prescribed weight and is measured by checking the Body Mass Index of the […]
• What Critical Thinking Is and How to Become an Accomplished Critical Thinker? In that regard, a definition that covers all the concepts of critical thinking might be considered as follows: Critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a […]
• Rap Culture and Music: Critical Thinking Thanks mainly to the champions of the folk revival of the 1960s and the dynamic African-American musicians leading the Civil Rights Movement, serious – and highly volatile – problems such as social injustice, hypocrisy, war-mongering, […]
• Reasoning and Critical Thinking in Daily Life As a counterpoint to the idea that expert behavior is the best place to look for generally useful strategies, The goal of producing descriptive theories of how people go about solving problems and the development […]
• The Socratic Method: Fostering Critical Thinking The Socratic Method is a philosophical mode of questioning that involves the investigation of connotations of other situations that are related to the topic of inquiry itself.
• Influence and Application of Critical Thinking The information processing and critical thinking had been regarded above, and it is directly linked with reading the same factors of critical thinking influence both: reading and information processing.
• Presidents Misdeeds: Ethics and Critical Thinking The same applies to what is right and what is wrong that is what is right or wrong differs from individual to individual, group to group, society to society.
• Online Social Networking and Critical Thinking The purpose of this paper is to assess whether this technology has helped to enhance the critical thinking ability and the effective writing skills of a person.”A social networking site is an online place where […]
• Critical Thinking and Decision Making in Professional and Personal Life The critical thinking and decision-making procedures are very important and essential in dispensation the amount of order that is pushed on us daylight hours the following day.
• Mobile Technology Impact on Critical Thinking Abilities in Nurses The issue of the research is absent from the abstract, but the point is that it is not clearly declared in the main body.
• Leaders’ Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills At the same time, the main barriers to effective decision-making are perceptual and emotional biases, as well as such phenomena as groupthink or collective thinking, referring to the tendency to agree with the opinion of […]
• Critical Thinking in Business Management In order to prevent the development of confirmation bias, managers must be aware of it and ready to learn and accept new information.
• Critical Thinking Skills for Postgraduate Study 1 However, to be able to explore a certain area and converse with others effectively, critical thinking is not enough, In addition to the ability to discern between the sensible and the nonsensical, one also […]
• Critical Thinking Development in Students It is necessary to note that people who are able to think critically can actually make a difference and contribute to development of the entire humanity.
• Critical Thinking and Society Exercise For instance, using fossil fuels as the main source of energy has led to the degradation of the environment through toxic emissions. Opinion can be used to redirect the process of thinking by weighing the […]
• The Eleven Steps in the Critical Thinking Method It was also pointed out the certainty that the members of the union will lose their jobs because of the government’s drive to achieve efficiency although there is nothing in the proposal that can compel […]
• Decision Making and Critical Thinking When making a certain decision, it is important to consider all the involved elements in order to achieve the desired results and avoid consequences that would affect either party in a negative manner.
• Critical Thinking Skills for Company’s Communication It is therefore important that the company introduces a new product in the market to regain its position as the leader in the market.
• Best Practices in Critical Thinking and Decision Making Thus, it is the role of the critical thinker to make sure that the evaluation drawn from such a breakdown is defensible.
• Critical Thinking and Writing Skills Reflection I have gained so much academically from studying this writing course, and I believe that the skills and knowledge gained from Clouse and Grevstad’s The Student Writer: Editor and Critic will go a long way […]
• Critical Thinking in the Decision-Making Processes According to Ennis, one can view “critical thinking as a way of becoming aware of and taking control of one’s thinking processes to think more effectively”.
• Critical Thinking, Mission and Leadership Statement This is because it consists of a detailed guideline that takes into consideration all the factors in the environment that may influence the goals, missions, and leadership statements. The position of a leader that I […]
• Believing Game as Critical Thinking Approach The doubting game is considered to be an essential approach to this process. Moreover, this approach helps to evaluate the personal position and to see its possible drawbacks and weak spots.
• Critical Thinking in Business & Life Decision-Making Such a method is beneficial for its practical application to determine and make tradeoffs within the context of set objectives as well as the range of alternatives to them.
• Students’ Critical Thinking Skills Development If Tsui only states the perspectives according to which it is possible to reform the existing approach to enhance the students’ critical thinking abilities with references to the conducted research, Payne and Gainey provide the […]
• Doctoral Demeanor, Responsibility, Critical Thinking It has been demonstrated that the outward expression of an individual greatly determines how he or she is perceived by other persons. If the demeanor attributes are not pleasing other people, the individual could be […]
• Critical Thinking: Developing Skills At that time, the ability to think critically and recognize the deeper meaning of information coming from the outside world became more attractive due to the pressure of the totalitarian governments that were operating in […]
• Critical Thinking vs. Scientific Authority Even before Painter carried out the experiment on human chromosomes, previous studies on the same had already confirmed a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes.
• Breach of a Law: Critical Thinking The case discussed in this paper is an excellent example of an ethical challenge in which one participating company must decide on a course of action including whether to continue as one of the parties […]
• Critical Thinking Benefits in Decision-Making Processes It is the purpose of this paper to provide an example of critical thinking application at the personal level in addition to critically discussing the importance and benefits of critical thinking in decision-making processes.
• Critical Thinking and Paraphrasing: The Word “War” The writer’s opinion brings out the negative side of the word’s interpretation or significance and portrays lack of enough objectives and more productive terms of the language.
• Critical Thinking Tools in Decision Making Process The authors suggest that critical thinking will aid individuals in dealing with the qualms of the contemporary society and become secure in the choices they make.
• Homeland Security’s Critical Thinking Model The ‘best’ critical thinking model that is established in this essay consists of a combination of other critical thinking models that have been employed in the past.
• Congress’ Work in Critical Thinking: A User’s Manual As the matter of fact, the argument of the statement is centered on that fact that the only opportunity to pass the bill is to be flexible and use sweet-talking as the approach to influence […]
• Whistleblowing as a Critical Thinking Skill Whistleblowing is defined as “having four component parts: 1) an individual acts with the intention of making information public; 2) the information is conveyed to parties outside the organization who make it public and a […]
• Critical Thinking Skills in Emergency Management Therefore, critical thinking plays a crucial role in the success of the response to emergencies. This aspect requires all the involved parties to understand the nature of the crisis that they are handling.
• Education: Critical Thinking Process Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information or a situation. It entails the practice of engaging in independent and reflective thinking to identify and evaluate ideas to make informed decisions.
• Critical Thinking and Development of the Writer’s Reflection Techniques The view of the previous research is assessed and a decision is reached by the writer. Analysis is persuasive and the theory of critical writing will support the writer’s analysis.
• The Steps of Critical Thinking: Memo She rejects the governor’s offer of privatizing the management function of the DMV information systems of the state, and says that the plight of the workers should have been considered.
• Critical Thinking Paper: Executive Compensation Although most advocates of the high levels of executive compensation, especially for CEOs, argue that the suitability of compensation is determined through the market process of wage negotiation rather than a simple process of introspection, […]
• Critical Thinking in Health Care Compared to Fero et al.’s key CT skills of autonomous interventions, clinical judgment, and analysis and interpretation of problems, Robert and Petersen identify risk estimation, and analysis and evaluation of diagnosis as the key aspects […]
• Instructional Design, Constructivism, and Learning Sciences In the context of the gaming theory discussed before, the outer aspect of the game involves the interaction of the external stimuli through enhancement of the thinking process to determine the best possible strategies of […]
• Bloom’s Taxonomy and Critical Thinking As of the strong sides of this approach, these are the clear definition of the stages of cognitive operations and the distinction that is made between them.
• “The Development of Lexical Fluency in a Second Language” by Kroll et al. Methodology is a broader term that encompasses the theories and perspectives that underlies the research as well as the methods that are used in conducting the research.
• Critical Thinking and Intelligence Analysis On the other hand, when speaking about the scientists who predicted war in various parts of the Earth, one can make a conclusion that biases in evaluating evidence as well as diagnostic techniques were used […]
• What Is Critical Thinking? It seems that critical thinking can be defined as a cognitive process which involves unbiased evaluation and analysis of information as well the generation of new ideas or arguments. This is one of the points […]
• Two Definitions of Critical Thinking Second, critical thinking is knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. Components of critical thinking seek and treat information in their ways, involve continual use of skills, and acknowledge the outcomes of the […]
• HR Critical Thinking: Where Do You Find the Bodies? In order to maintain the employees, they should be treated well in that there should better working conditions and terms. The mechanics should be hired on better working conditions and terms in order to maintain […]
• The Development of Ability to Critical Thinking That is why it is necessary to find new approaches to the analysis of many aspects of our everyday life. One more important aspect or objective for improving of your critical thinking is the necessity […]
• Communication Systems, Ethical Issues, and Organizational Processes in the Hospital The meeting revolves around this and it is towards the end that Chris realizes that he was being briefed on the challenges affecting the hospital and that he is to use this information in coming […]
• Critical Thinking: Level of Reasoning and Making Judgments This is because such offices are important in that they hold the keys to either the success or the failure of the corporations.
• Corporate External and Internal Communication Argenti has discussed how a business’ corporate communication of internal and external communication to its constituencies should be, in the third and the seventh chapter his book Corporate Communication.
• Critical Thinking and Worldview The purpose of life in Christianity’s view is to serve God. This is a big contrast to the Buddhism view on destiny.
• The Importance and Relevance of Critical Thinking in Both the Classroom and the Outside World By use of type of critical thinking, the student has the ability to analyze and evaluate different concepts to come up with the best solution.
• Critical Thinking and Its Role in Real Life Situations There are other instances in our lives that will always need critical thinking and this is a fact that we have to live with.
• Critical Thinking About the Vietnam Conflict This forced the U.S.into supporting the establishment of an adversarial Vietnamese Republic in the south while arming, advising, and training the newly formed Army of the Republic of Vietnam.
• Critical Thinking as the Most Effective Learned Skill These are the features of critical thinking that we shall compare to the three commonly applied approaches of critical thinking to determine the approach that is most ideal.
• Critical Thinking Application Paper The evaluation critical thinking paper gives an example that required critical thinking as well as the importance and benefits of critical thinking in decision making process.
• Critical Thinking and Actively and Skillfully Conceptualizing A problem can come from any part of the organization and being able to identify the specific problem is the most important thing in the process of critical thinking.
• Critical Thinking in Problem Solving The common practice disorients the attention of the driver and endangers the lives of other individuals using the road. Thus, the technique has been employed to increase the production of food so as to meet […]
• How Can Teachers Teach Critical Thinking? Despite the fact that, as we have mentioned earlier, the growing number of educators come to realize the indispensability of providing students with a stimulus to develop critical thinking, only few of them seem to […]
• Critical Thinking and What Really Constitutes Critical Thinking This essay is going to apply the elements of critical thinking to the report of September 11, 2001 concerning the attacks on the United States.
• Critical Thinking Method vs. The Elements of Thought Questions: Finding Out Which Method Is More Effective For example from Asking the Right Questions the first two questions: 1) What are the issues and conclusions? and 2) What are the reasons; are similar to Elements of Thought’s first two questions: 1) What […]
• What Is Critical Thinking?
• How Does Critical Thinking Help Students?
• What Does a Critical Thinking Essay Refer To?
• Does Mindfulness Enhance Critical Think?
• What Is the Role of Critical Thinking in the World Today?
• What is the Difference Between the Critical Thinking and the Nonconscious Thinking? This paper states that critical thinking skills and nonconscious thinking are not mutually exclusive phenomena. They occur in parallel but are interconnected.
• How Can Critical Thinking and Ethics Affect One’s Life?
• What Are the Scope of Fallacies as They Relate to Creative and Critical Thinking?
• Does Simulation Have Any Effect on the Self Confidence or Critical Thinking?
• What Is the Importance of Individuality, Self-Knowledge, and Self-Worth in Critical Thinking?
• How Will Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Techniques Assist in Duties as a Field Grade Officer?
• What Is the Meaning of Critical Thinking to Our World Today?
• Should Teach Critical Thinking in High School?
• How Can Critical Thinking Be Used in Everyday Life?
• What Effect Does Simulation Lab Have on Critical Thinking and Confidence?
• How Does Critical Thinking and Ethics Affect Therapeutic Communication in the Treatment of Mental Health Patients?
• What Role Does Language and Language Diversity Play in the Critical Thinking?
• How Do Reading, Critical Thinking, and Writing Relate to One Another?
• What Is the Connection Between Communication and Critical Thinking Skills?
• How Can Critical Thinking Be Enhanced Among Students?
• Is There a Link Between Critical Thinking and Money?
• What Is Link Between Reflective Analysis and Critical Thinking?
• Is There a Link Between Critical Thinking, Reflective Analysis, and Ethics in the World Today?
• What Are the Benefits of Applied Critical Thinking to Organizations and Businesses Today?
• How Well Are Our Schools Influencing Our Critical Thinking and Promoting Imagination in Students?
• What Are the Arguments in Critical Thinking?
• How Can I Improve My Critical Thinking Skills?
• Are There Any Trends in Critical Thinking?
• What Is the Scope of Creative Thinking About Critical Thinking?
• How Important Is Critical Thinking to Your Problem-Solving Process?
• What Are the Benefits of Learning Critical Thinking Skills?
• Personal Ethics Titles
• Cultural Psychology Ideas
• Economic Topics
• Learning Styles Essay Topics
• Forensic Accounting Paper Topics
• Employee Engagement Essay Topics
• Pedagogy Topics
• Self-Reflection Research Topics
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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240 Philosophical Questions for Deep Critical Thinking & Debate

Philosophical questions are an effective tool to stimulate and develop critical thought. They examine profound matters like free will and human nature; the source and value of happiness; morality and ethics; love, logic, and knowledge; religion, death, and the meaning of life.

Although such questions can open a “rabbit hole” that leads to endless and seemingly unanswerable questions, a list of philosophical questions to ask about life—like the ones provided below—can be used as a springboard for critical thinking.  

Such questions help us evaluate arguments, explore foreign ideas, identify potential biases, and think critically about our own beliefs and presuppositions.

We are preparing our our children to enter a society full of questions … and questionable ideas.

Consequently, it is our responsibility to train them to think critically and, above all, seek truth when asking the deep questions that arise in their own hearts. 

First, let’s take a closer look at what a philosophy question is. Then I’ll provide some examples to help encourage deep thinking. 

What is a Philosophical Question OR TOPIC?

A philosophical question is open-ended. Since philosophy itself means “love of wisdom,” it logically follows that a philosophical question is one that pursues a deep understanding of the subject examined.

The answer to this type of question isn’t necessarily an easy one—nor is it always black or white. It requires thoughtful reflection.

The deeper the reasoning behind the answer the better.  

Bear in mind there’s no such thing as a dumb philosophical question . However, don’t be surprised if the way questions are answered borders on the brink of absurdity at times.

But the goal is to inspire thought .

So … even if your students gives nonsensical responses, if they’re willing to explain how they came to their answer, count it as a win. 

(Even giving an incomplete answer is better than not pondering the question at all.)

A good example of a philosophical question is one of the three overarching “pillars” of philosophy.

The 3 Basic But Big Questions of Philosophy Deal with Existence

The fundamental questions of philosophy deal with existence and fall into three main categories::

• Where did we come from?
• Why are we here and how should we live?
• Is there hope for our future and life after death?

How we answer those questions determines what we will value and how we will behave. 

With that in mind, it’s clear just how important it is to train our children to ask meaningful questions and seek truthful answers. 

The study of philosophy can help us do that.

PDF Download of 240 Philosophical Questions

GET ALL 240 QUESTIONS IN AN INSTANT-DOWNLOAD EBOOK!

Includes strategies for using philosophical questions as debate topics.

It is natural to be inquisitive. Let’s steward our students’ curious natures well!

I’ve gathered 240 philosophy questions to help you (and your students) think through tough philosophical topics together. 

It’s tempting to look at these questions as a mere academic exercise. 

But philosophical ideas have shaped human history from ancient times until today — for better or for worse .

Look at them, instead, as a means of preparing your students to face (and combat) the deceptive ideas they will soon encounter. 

Questions of Free Will and Human Nature

Are we really free?

The question of free will versus determinism has been debated by great thinkers for centuries.

Some contend that we have complete freedom of choice.

Others believe that humans have no free will and cannot be held morally responsible for their actions (determinism).They argue that the choices we make stem exclusively from the nature we are born with and all the influences that surround us.

The Bible teaches that we have free will, and we’re responsible for our actions. As Deuteronomy 30:19 explains:

“… I have set before you life and death, blessings and curses. Now choose life, so that you and your children may live …”

Here are some questions about will and humanity:

• Are humans innately good or evil?
• Can humans change their behavior if given enough time?
• Do humans need God to exist?
• What happens when we die?
• Does consciousness continue after physical death?
• Why does suffering happen?
• Should we try to prevent bad events from happening? If so, then how would we go about doing that?
• What makes human life so valuable?
• What makes us human?
• Why does it matter if we’re alive?
• Is there anything wrong with being selfish?
• Do humans need other people in order to live?
• Can animals feel pain? If so, why don’t they try to avoid hurting each other?
• Are children born good or evil?
• Is it okay to lie to protect yourself?
• What is beauty?
• Do all people deserve respect?
• Did you exist before you were born?
• Where do emotions come from?
• Can we choose our emotions or do they just happen?
• At what age are children held accountable for their actions? How do you determine that?
• Where does self-worth come from?
• How do you determine one’s self-worth?
• Is one human life worth more than another?
• Is ignorance really bliss?
• What is the goal of humanity?
• Can predestination and free will coexist?

Philosophical Questions About Happiness

The philosopher Aristotle held the view that, “Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.”

Yet the very definition of happiness is as diverse as the people who seek it. Some seek it in relationships, others in work, hobbies, or pleasure. 

One school of thought says finding happiness requires a life in which every aspect contributes toward personal fulfillment. 

Another believes that happiness is “happenstance”—an emotion based on positive circumstances. 

What do you think?

Here are some questions to ponder about happiness:

• What does it mean to be happy?
• Can I be happy when faced with suffering?
• Is happiness universal or a matter of perspective?
• How much should we care about making ourselves happy?
• Is it possible to feel happy and sad at the same time?
• Is it really necessary to pursue happiness?
• Are we happier now as a society than in times past? Why or why not?
• Does anyone else’s happiness affect my own?
• If someone has less material wealth than me, does this automatically make him unhappy? 
• What brings true happiness?
• Can happiness be measured or quantified, like money and power?
• Are certain types of experiences inherently “happier” than others?
• Is it always best to seek out pleasure over avoiding pain?
• Is happiness just the product of chemical reactions in the brain?

Questions Regarding Morals and Ethics

Questions of morals and ethics are important to explore if you wish to develop critical thinking skills. 

Morality and ethics both relate to the distinction between good and bad or right and wrong. However, morality is usually thought of as personal and normative, while ethics is the standards of good and bad distinguished by a particular community or social setting. 

Because the seriousness of the two topics can elicit emotional responses, if we’re not careful, debates on ethics and morality can get heated quickly.

A good moral or ethical argument takes the whole picture into account. 

For instance, how would you answer the question, “ Is killing always wrong? ”

Our first instinct may be a resounding Yes!

But looking at the big picture, we might ask: What if it occurs in self-defense? What about soldiers? Are they held to the same ethical standard civilians are?

These are the types of philosophical questions we encounter in this category.

Here are some additional examples:

• Is morality relative or absolute?
• Where do morals come from?
• Is it possible to make moral judgments without religion?
• Is killing justified under certain conditions?
• What makes something immoral?
• How do you define “good” and “evil”?
• Why do most people think that lying is bad?
• Should all actions have equal consequences?
• Does every human life count equally?
• Is it ever justified to hurt others?
• Is it fair to punish criminals with death?
• Does morality come from within or outside ourselves?
• Is stealing ever permissible? 
• Is it ever permissible to deceive others?
• Should we judge acts based on their outcomes alone?
• Should we always follow the rules even if doing so causes harm?
• Is slavery ever ethically defensible?
• Is dishonesty always wrong?
• Would you kill one person in order to save 1,000?
• Are lies permissible if they protect someone’s feelings?
• What defines a person?
• Are we obligated to help others?
• Is it wrong to kill animals?
• Are humans replaceable?
• What is virtue?

Love is an abstract concept defined in a number of different ways. It’s described as:

• a state of mind
• a relationship
• or a desire.

You’ll find a biblical definition of love in 1 Corinthians 13:4-8:

“Love is patient and kind; love does not envy or boast; it is not arrogant or rude. It does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrongdoing, but rejoices with the truth. Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things. Love never ends.…”

Here’s a collection of philosophical questions about love:

• Which is more important: love or money? Why?
• Is there such thing as true love? If yes, where does it come from? 
• Do all human beings want to be loved?
• Can anyone ever really understand another’s feelings?
• Are children born with an innate love for their parents? 
• Are some relationships better than others?
• Can life without love exist?
• What makes someone fall in love?
• Why do people get married?
• Is there a difference between love and lust?
• Is marriage necessary?
• Does love last forever?
• Is it okay to love yourself?
• Is love natural or a choice to be made?
• Where do we find love?

Hard Questions Concerning Death

Have you heard the cliché: “The only certainty in life is death and taxes”?

Death truly is a certainty of life. 

While some people choose to face the reality of death head-on, others pretend like it doesn’t exist. 

Perhaps it’s the finality of death that sparks fear. 

Regardless of how we feel, our time on earth will end at some point in the future. 

How should that impact how we live today?

Discussing death can be healthy when done in the right manner. 

Here are some questions about death we can use to explore the topic, provoke thought, and potentially positively affect how we live:

• Why do people fear death?
• Can we know for certain if there is life after death?
• How would you like to be remembered after you die?
• What happens to the body after you die?
• Does “good death” exist?
• What would happen if we lived forever?
• Should we try to prolong our lives at any cost?
• Could immortality be possible?
• Is euthanasia wrong in all circumstances?
• Is death actually the beginning?
• Why is it acceptable to kill insects?
• Should terminally ill patients be able to choose death?

Questions with Respect to Universal Human Rights 

Universal human rights are those rights which apply equally to everyone regardless of race, religion, gender, or creed. 

They include freedom of speech , equality before law , right to justice , and more. 

The philosophy behind human rights is based upon the idea that humans deserve respect and dignity, and—ultimately—the right to life.

They’re largely considered universal because they are natural, belonging to all members of humanity simply by virtue of being human.

Some philosophers argue that such rights can’t be taken away, while others claim they are conditional.  

Here are a few questions to help us think critically about human rights:

• What makes something a human right?
• Do you believe human rights even exist?
• Are human rights actually universal?
• Are humans rights and entitlement the same thing? 
• Can torture be justified?
• Is liberty a human right?
• Is personal autonomy a right?
• Do governments have the authority to regulate what people do?
• Does democracy guarantee individual liberty?
• How much control should individuals have over their own bodies?
• If someone commits murder, do they still have the right to life?
• Who has the ultimate responsibility for protecting human rights?
• Has modern technology made us more or less humane?
• Is education a human right for all people?
• Is war ever justifiable?
• Is due process a universal right no matter the crime?
• Is capital punishment ever appropriate?
• Are there any downsides to universal human rights?
• Is free speech a universal right?

Philosophical Questions About Politics, Government, and Society

This category contains some of the hardest philosophical questions out there. Most of us have strong beliefs about politics, government, and society that make it hard to form an unbiased opinion. 

Besides political topics, questions in this category also address social issues , social construct , culture , power , and influence .

We can go so far as to question who gets what— when, where, and how.

If you wish to argue successfully—no matter what side of an issue you align with—it is paramount to understand the opposing viewpoint. 

Let’s look at a few questions:

• What makes a country democratic?
• What responsibilities does a government have to its constituents?
• Do democracies always make better decisions than dictatorships?
• What constitutes good governance?
• Is rebellion against government ever justified?
• Is socialism fair? What is “fair”?
• If you rob from the rich and give to the poor, is it wrong?
• Are laws always good?
• Is taxation justified?
• What is the ideal government? Why?
• Should the will of the people always be followed?
• What role do political parties play?
• Who defines corruption?
• How do I know whether my views are correct?
• Is voting compulsory?
• Is there such a thing as too much freedom?
• Is bribery always bad?
• Are police officers obligated to protect criminals?
• Should citizens obey unjust laws?
• Who decides which laws apply to whom?
• Where do we draw the line between criminal behavior and civil disobedience?
• Does the state have the moral duty to provide healthcare for its citizens?
• Is wealth redistribution morally correct?
• Should college be free for all? What about grade school or high school?
• Are freedom and liberty the same thing?
• What makes someone free?
• What makes a crime a crime?
• Is it right to govern the number of children families can have to control the world’s population?

Deep Questions to Make You Think 

Deep philosophical questions are designed to help you think critically and reflect on the subject at hand. 

They are meant to challenge your beliefs so that you may stand more firmly in them , knowing why you believe what you do. 

Here are some examples:

• What is reality?
• What are the limits of science?
• Where did all matter come from?
• Can I trust my senses?
• Is there an innnate moral code?
• Does time exist objectively?
• Who created God?
• Is there a soul?
• Are perceptions real?
• Is “fair” the same for everyone? Who determines whether or not something is “fair”?
• What is time?
• What makes you … you?
• What is truth?
• Is truth reality?
• What gives life meaning?
• What determines success vs. failure?
• Why do bad things happen to good people?
• How do I know what’s true?
• Should we judge others by their actions?
• What’s the purpose of life?
• Where do ideas come from?
• What is justice?
• What is evil?
• What makes someone “good” or “bad”?
• Can something be true without evidence?
• Is fate real?
• At what point does consciousness begin?
• Can time be altered?
• Is there a cause for every effect?

Easy and Funny Questions for Conversation Starters

Not all philosophy discussion topics have to be as serious as “What is the meaning of life?” 

Learning should be fun and engaging, so don’t shy away from humor when asking deep questions or coming up with unorthodox answers. 

Sometimes the most amusing questions lead to the most profound realizations.

Here’s a list of somewhat random philosophical questions to start fun conversations with kids, teens, and older students:

• Is time travel possible? Why or why not?
• Do memories still exist if you forget them?
• Are animals freer than man?
• Are twins unique?
• Are animals like people?
• Do trees feel pain?
• How do you know you’re not dreaming right now?
• Are insects conscious of life?
• What makes something humorous to some and not to others?
• If you save time on something, what happens to that time?
• Why do we talk to ourselves?
• If you try to fail and do, did you actually succeed?
• Can 2+2 ever be something other than 4?

For more ways to engage students in the study of philosophy, try these fun and creative philosophy activities .

Epistemology Questions

Epistemology is concerned with knowledge. It asks questions like::

• How does knowledge work?
• Why do we need it?
• What kind of things count as knowledge?

Epistemologists study these kinds of questions because they’re interested in understanding how humans acquire knowledge. 

They also investigate how to differentiate between opinion and justified belief .

As such, epistemological questions analyze which types of evidence can be trusted as reliable sources of information and why. 

Needless to say, this category can contain some pretty interesting philosophical questions:

• How do we determine if something is certain?
• How do you know if you know something?
• Does anyone ever truly learn anything?
• Who decides what counts as true knowledge?
• Who determines the difference between fact and fiction?
• What is the relationship between facts and opinions?
• What is the source of human knowledge?
• What is knowledge?
• What is the nature of certainty?
• What is the basis of our confidence in claims made by other people?
• What is the role of reason in determining what’s true?
• What is the relation between logic and reasoning?
• What is the connection between language and thought?
• What is the distinction between perception and imagination?
• What is intuition?
• What is the function of intuition?
• What are thoughts?
• What is the purpose of thinking?
• If two people understand things differently, who is right?
• If we had 1000 years to learn, could we know everything?
• Is there an end of knowledge?
• Is everything subjective?

Logic and the Universe

The historical discipline of logic largely began with Thales , known as the “Father of Western Philosophy.” 

Before this point in history, questions of existence were largely “explained” with Greek mythology. 

As it stands today, logic can be described as the discipline of distinguishing good vs bad reasoning.   

But who defines “good” and “bad”?

It’s important to note that even the best logical conclusions can be false.

Logic doesn’t equal truth.

( Investigate the difference between logical thinking and critical thinking here if you’re interested).

You’ll notice many questions in this category address our origins and creation: 

• Can order come from chaos?
• Can something be created from nothing?
• Where did matter come from?
• Is everything relative?
• Is there only one universe? How do we know?
• Is there such thing as absolute truth?
• Are there different levels of existence?
• Do we live forever?
• Was the Big Bang a real event?
• Is space finite?
• Is time eternal?
• Is logic a created concept?
• What time is it really?
• Is the mind the same as the brain?
• What are numbers? 
• Does the universe end?
• Is there such a thing as perfection?
• Does sound exist without hearing?
• Are people in a different timezone in the past (or future)?
• Where does fear come from?
• Does pain exist in itself or just our perception of it?
• What is hope?
• Could there be a parallel universe?

Philosophical Questions About Religion 

Maybe some of the toughest questions are those of religion. Religion for many is the driving force in their lives (and for good reason). 

Religious views affect how we raise our children, interact with others, make decisions, and so much more. 

As such, questioning religious principles can be tricky. Some parents go so far as to encourage their kids to not question at all. 

Others choose a different route, knowing their children will soon enter a world that will challenge them to question what they believe.

Encouraging teens to question their beliefs—in a structured setting with the Word of God in hand—can prepare them to “make a defense” to those who ask about the hope that is within them (1 Peter 3:15). 

Here are some questions about religion:

• Does God exist?
• Does God’s existence depend on our belief in him?
• Can love exist without God?
• What constitutes religion?
• Are miracles real?
• Is religion compatible with science?
• Why does faith matter?
• Who decides which religions are right?
• What makes a person a Christian?
• Should I follow my beliefs blindly?
• Is God a created being?
• Can morality exist without religion?
• Is there a higher power?

Unanswerable Philosophical Questions

Let’s talk about some of the challenges that arise when we delve into the world of ideas.

Since philosophical thought lives largely in grey territory, it deals with questions that can’t be answered with the usual “yes or no,” “this or that” definitive response. 

And as our children search for answers to these philosophical questions, they will encounter deceptive lies disguised as logic. 

Many college professors of philosophy today will tell you that life’s biggest questions remain unanswered.

Yet those who possess a biblical worldview have a much different perspective. 

Even in a lost, confusing world, the Bible is a compass that always points true North. It declares truth in matters the world deems unanswerable.

That’s why it is so important to teach our children how to think and how to reason from a biblical perspective.

Philosophy and Critical Thinking Go Hand in Hand

Critical thinking involves asking questions, analyzing arguments, evaluating evidence, and making decisions based on those evaluations. 

It requires us to use logic, reasoning skills, critical analysis, and judgment.

Sound familiar?

Critical thinking is an essential skill that allows us to make decisions and solve problems effectively. 

And while it may not seem so at first glance, it is a skill that enables us to defend our beliefs effectively when challenged.

That’s why we focus so heavily on critical thinking from a biblical worldview in the resources we offer at Homeschool Adventure . 

If you’re looking for a way to help your students develop critical thinking from a biblical worldview as they explore the history of ideas, check out Philosophy Adventure :

will your children recognize truth?

Philosophy Adventure  teaches students 6th-12th grade how to  write   skillfully ,  think   critically , and  speak   clearly  as they explore the  history of ideas .

It was written to bring history alive! Instead of memorizing facts, students “travel back in time” to walk alongside ancient philosophers.

All the while, they will be challenged to examine what they believe about the world around them, and  why they believe it .

By the end of the year, students will have written their very own book of philosophy!

Tips for Using These Questions as Philosophical Debate Topics

Philosophical questions about life are naturally thought provoking.

When used properly, even controversial philosophy topics can be effective springboards for critical thinking—a skill that will benefit your teen for life!

Questions can spark wonderful, stimulating debate among older students, especially those in upper middle through high school. 

And philosophical debates can be fun but also challenging, providing the perfect opportunity to practice critical thinking. 

If you’ve never tried debating in your homeschool, you can use some of these philosophical questions to start. 

A quick note:

Not all questions are practical for satisfying philosophical discussions.  

The purpose of debate in the homeschool setting is to practice and improve critical thinking, active listening, argument formation, and even teamwork. 

Its purpose is not to waste time on frivolous arguing. 

Those of us who believe that the Bible is the Word of God know that absolute truth exists. Consequently, questions to which Scripture provides clear answers may not be the best choice for learning how to debate .

Likewise, you may want to avoid questions whose answers would have to be based solely on speculation—with no practical way to confirm facts or conclusions. 

However, keeping all of that in mind, it can be immensely productive for older, more mature students to try to debate a stance they personally disagree with.

Doing so can help them better understand their opponent … and equip them to effectively counter opposing views they may face in “real life.”

Only you know whether your students are ready for such a task, so use discernment. 

Since the list of questions we provided is pretty extensive, here’s an abbreviated list of questions that would make great philosophical debate topics :

• Does anyone else’s happiness affect my own?
• Is socialism fair? What is “fair’?

 How to Debate Philosophy

When you debate a philosophical question, follow the same general outline as any other debate process. 

An at-home, sibling-to-sibling or parent-child debate may proceed as follows:

• Assign the debate topic, first and second positions (for or against the question), and allow time for students to brainstorm ideas.
• Encourage students to organize their ideas into simple arguments or points.
• Practice structuring those ideas into a speech with an introduction, rebuttal (for those arguing in the second position), points to make, and a conclusion. 
• Designate a neutral third party to declare a “winner.”
• Start the debate.

Depending on your schedule, this entire process can be done in a single day—or stretched over the course of a week (or even a month). 

How to Handle Different Age Groups

Simply adjust how deeply you go into each step, depending on the ages of your students.

For younger middle school students, consider keeping the debate more like a simple discussion and less of an emphasis on structure and speeches. 

However, you may want to encourage high school students to organize well-developed arguments and rebuttals.

Philosophical questions about life are naturally thought-provoking.

We actually have even more thought-provoking questions here .

When used properly, even controversial philosophy topics can be effective springboards for critical thinking — a skill that will benefit your teen for life!

About The Author

Jordan Mitchell

Equip students to identify deceptive lies disguised as logic, get 25% off for the next 20 minutes only.

240 Philosophical Questions  contains 60+ pages filled with open-ended questions that inspire thought and reflection. Includes built-in tips for discussion and ways to use questions as debate topics.