thesis direct citation

APA Style Citation Guide 7th Edition

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APA 7th Direct Quotes

APA Direct Quote

If a source has multiple authors, follow these guidelines.

Two  authors in a parenthetical citation:  Use an ampersand (&) between the two last names. ​ 

Two authors in the narrative:   Use  and  between the two last names. ​ 

Three or more authors:  Only cite the first author, followed by  et al.

If directly quoting, include the author, year of publication, and page number for the reference. Introduce the quote with a phrase like  according to  or state the author's last name.

• According to Smith (2017), "First-year college students struggle with the lack of sleep, good eating habits, and APA style" (p. 23).
• According to Jones and Brown (2017), "Citing in correct APA style can be challenging" (p. 25).
• Smith (2017) discovered "first-year college students struggle with lack of sleep, good eating habits, and APA style" (p. 23); what does that mean for college health officers, librarians, and teachers?

If you do not name the author in the sentence, list it with the date and page numbers after the quotation.

• She said, "First-year college students struggle with lack of sleep, good eating habits, and APA style" (Roberts, 2017, p. 199), and listed several solutions.

No page numbers . If the work does not have a page number, then provide an "address" to find the quoted text using one of the following methods:

• Supply a heading or section name (this can be abbreviated).                                                                    "Librarians are the keepers of information" (Johnson & Minchew, 2022, Reference Section)
• Supply a paragraph number (for unnumbered paragraphs count them accordingly).                                  "Reference is not a mute topic" (Johnson & Minchew, 2022, para. 1).
• Supply a heading or section name and a paragraph number.                                                                      "Research is a complex undertaking. Proper technique wields the best possible results" (Johnson & Minchew, 2022, Research section, para. 3).

Audiovisual work . When providing a quote directly from an audiovisual work ( audioBooks, films, podcast, TV programs, YouTube video ), place a time stamp for the beginning of the quote in lieu of a page number.

     "Books open the path to understanding and expanding our minds" (Johnson, 2022, 7:11). 

View APA Style guidance for Quotations . 

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APA 7th referencing style

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What is a direct quotation?

Format of a direct quotation in-text reference, placement of a direct quotation in-text reference, quoting audiovisual works, works without a page number.

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A direct quotation reproduces word-for-word material taken directly from another author’s work, or from your own previously published work.

If the quotation is fewer than 40 words , incorporate it into your paragraph and enclose it in double quotation marks. 

David Copperfield starts with "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show" (Dickens, 1869, p. 1).

If the quotation comprises 40 or more words , include it in an indented, freestanding block of text, without quotation marks. Make it double spaced .

Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show. To beginmy life with the beginning of my life, I record that I was born (as I have been informed and believe) on a Friday, at twelve o’clock at night. It was remarked that the clock began to strike, and I began to cry, simultaneously. (Dickens, 1896, p. 1)

• Include the author, year, and specific page number for that quotation.
• For material without page numbers, give the paragraph number or a time stamp.
• Include a complete reference in the reference list.

(Smith, 2003, p. 105)

(Brown, 1999, pp. 49-50)

Smith (2003) has argued that "......" (p. 105)

As Brown (1999) found "......" (pp. 49-50) 

(Anderson, 2019, 2:17)

Anderson (2019) noted that "...." (2:17)

Direct quotes that are less than 40 words

Parenthetical reference.

• Can be added either directly after the quote or at the end of the sentence.
• Ensure it is the same sentence as the quote.

Mindfulness has a range of meanings as it "has become a trend word conveying a diversity of understandings dependent on context" (Crane, 2017, p. 586).

Mindfulness has a range of meanings as it "has become a trend word conveying a diversity of understandings dependent on context" (Crane, 2017, p. 586) and can encompass...

Narrative reference

• Add the author in the sentence, followed by the year in brackets. Include the page number in brackets after the quote.

As Crane (2017) said, "Mindfulness has become a trend word conveying a diversity of understandings dependent on context" (p. 586).

As Crane (2017) said, "Mindfulness has become a trend word conveying a diversity of understandings dependent on context" (p. 586) and can encompass....

Quotes with more than 40 words (block quotes)

• Include at the end of the quote.

Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show. To begin my life with the beginning of my life, I record that I was born (as I have been informed and believe) on a Friday, at twelve o’clock at night. It was remarked that the clock began to strike, and I began to cry, simultaneously. (Dickens, 1896, p. 1)

• Include the author last name in the sentence, followed by the year in brackets before the block quote.
• Add the page number in brackets at the end of the block quote.

As Dickens (1896) famously began "David Copperfield":

Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show. To begin my life with the beginning of my life, I record that I was born (as I have been informed and believe) on a Friday, at twelve o’clock at night. It was remarked that the clock began to strike, and I began to cry, simultaneously. (p. 1)

• Add a time stamp in place of a page number when quoting from audiovisual works such as videos, songs, TV shows.

(Yates, 2019, 1:14)

(Henderson, 2017, 2:30:14)

For works without a page number, you can add:-

• paragraph number (manually count if not listed) eg. (Kennedy, 2019, para.8)
• heading or section name eg. (Harris, 2018, Behaviour Therapy section)
• act, scene and line(s) for plays eg. (Wilde, 1895/1997, 1.1.6-8) (means Act 1.Scene 1.Line(s) 6-8)
• canonically numbered sections for religious or classical works eg. (Genesis 15:6) (include book, chapter, verse, line or canto in place of page number)
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APA Citation Style, 7th Edition: Dissertations & Thesis

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Citing Dissertations & Theses in APA Format

Dissertations & Theses

Dissertations and theses are formatted the same way in APA 7th edition. Theses are generally the culminating work for a master's or undergraduate degree and dissertations are often original research completed by doctoral students. Here are examples of a dissertation & a thesis, and how they would be formatted: 

Examples: 

Dissertation found in Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global: 

Reference:  

Banks, B. (2020). Addressing institutional racism in healthcare: A case study (Publication No. 28154307) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota]. Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global. 

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):  

(Banks, 2020).

In-Text Citation (Direct Quote):

(Banks, 2020, p. 157).

Master's thesis from a University scholarship database: 

Sears, L. B. (2017). The public voice and sustainable food systems: Community engagement in food action plans [Unpublished master's thesis]. University of Kansas.  https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/26899  

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

(Sears, 2017). 

(Sears, 2017, p. 24). 

Carrie Forbes, MLS

Pages Referenced

Citation information has been adapted from the APA Manual (7th Edition). Please refer to page 333 of the APA Manual (7th Edition) for more information.

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APA Style 6th Edition: Citing Your Sources

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Standard Format

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Dissertation or thesis available from a database service:

Author Surname, First Initial. Second Initial. (year of publication).  Title of dissertation or thesis (Doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis).  Retrieved from Name of database.  (Accession or Order No.)

For an unpublished dissertation or thesis:

Author Surname, First Initial. Second Initial. (year of creation).  Title of dissertation or thesis (Unpublished doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis).  Name of Institution, Location.

See Ch 7 pp. 207-208 APA Manual for more examples and formatting rules

Formatting:

• Italicize the title
• Identify whether source is doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis in parentheses after the title
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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / APA style direct quotes and block quotes

APA style direct quotes and block quotes

Using an APA style direct quote, block quote, or paraphrase is one way to appropriately give credit where it is due and to avoid plagiarism.

What is a direct quote vs. a block quote vs. a paraphrase?

It’s important to know the difference between a direct quote, a block quote, and a paraphrase.

Otherwise, you may get flagged for plagiarizing someone else’s work when you didn’t mean to.

Direct quote:

A direct quote is a statement that is taken verbatim (word-for-word) from a text or speaker.

Block quote:

A block quote is a long direct quote that is separated from the regular text. By APA standards, you use a block text for quotes that are 40 words or longer.

Paraphrase:

A paraphrase differs from a direct quote in that the writer is putting someone else’s thoughts and ideas into their own words.

When you decide to talk about a published work in your paper, the first question to ask is if it’s best to paraphrase or directly quote from that work. Further explanations and examples of a direct quote, a block quote, and a paraphrase are provided below to help you make an educated choice.

Paraphrasing in APA style

Paraphrasing is recommended and often used by academic scholars because it helps to synthesize complex concepts. When a source is paraphrased, a citation still needs to be included.

Regardless of whether a source is paraphrased or directly quoted, it must include an APA in-text citation to avoid the perils of plagiarism.

Original quote:

Marshall McLuhan famously stated in Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man , “the medium is the message” (McLuhan, 1964, p. 2).

Paraphrase example:

Marshall McLuhan proposed in Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man that the medium used to transmit a message is often more important than the content of the message itself (McLuhan, 1964, p. 2).

Although it is not required in APA citation style, adding the page or paragraph number in the citation for an APA paraphrase can also help readers locate the passage within the source.

Using direct quotes in APA style

Sometimes it’s necessary to reproduce another work verbatim to convey the exact meaning. In fact, direct quotes should be used when citing a definition and when the author’s specific rhetoric or phrasing is being analyzed.

Keep in mind that different academic journals and instructors may have limits for how many direct quotes they are willing to accept.

Direct quote example:

Gandhi defined democracy as being, “based on the idea that I do, should provide the same opportunities weaker than stronger. Only nonviolence can achieve this goal” (Gandhi, 1952).

In-text citations: Parenthetical vs. narrative citation

There are two different ways to include an APA in-text citation with a quote: parenthetical and narrative.

Both are mentioned within the text and include the author’s last name and the year the source was published. The difference is whether the author’s surname is used as a descriptive element within the sentence or simply to cite the work.

Parenthetical in-text citations

An APA parenthetical citation can appear within or at the end of a sentence, but it must include both the author and the date in parenthesis, separated by a comma.

Single author parenthetical citation example:

“Oh father – do you mean you have found a new way to work?”  exclaims the character Cassandra in the novel, I Capture the Castle (Dodie, 1948, p. 341).

Organizational author parenthetical citation example:

The incidence of the novel coronavirus in the United States from June–August 2020 was highest in persons aged 20–29 years (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020).

Two authors parenthetical citation example:

Their relationship is explained in All the President’s Men as, “Bernstein looked like one of those counterculture journalists that Woodward despised. Bernstein thought that Woodward’s rapid rise at the Post had less to do with his ability than his Establishment credentials” (Bernstein & Woodward, 1974, p. 15).

Three or more authors parenthetical citation example:

Internal communication is integral to internal public relations with links to positive organizational and employee outcomes (Karanges et al., 2014).

Narrative in-text citations

For a narrative citation, the author’s surname appears within a sentence and the date shows up in parentheses immediately after the author’s name.

Single author narrative citation example:

In her poem, I know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Angelou (1969) describes opposing experiences.

Organizational author narrative citation example:

The U.S. Census Bureau (2020) found that only 10% of all U.S. homes, or about 11 million housing units, were aging-ready, based on the 2011 data.

Two authors narrative citation example:

Vialli and Marcotti (2007) detail how the characteristics of England and Italy, two of the most passionate soccer-playing countries, affect the game.

Three or more authors narrative citation example:

Milli et al. (2017) assert that despite being paid less, women’s earnings are increasingly important to the economic stability of families.

Using short, direct quotations

Short quotes are those consisting of less than 40 words, and they are incorporated into the sentence. Also, an ellipsis (with a space before and after) should only be used at the beginning or end of a quotation if the source includes an ellipsis.

Including page numbers

When using a direct quote, always provide the author, year, and page number of the source for both parenthetical and narrative citations. There is a specific way to format page numbers in APA citations. When the quote is from a single page simply use “p.” But when there are multiple pages being referenced, use the abbreviation “pp.” and an en dash to indicate the page range (pp. 34–38). If the pages are not within a range, simply use a comma to indicate the disparate pages (pp. 45, 72).

No pages numbers, no problem

When a direct quote has no page number, for any number of reasons (it’s a webpage or e-book, for example), provide an alternative method for locating the quoted passage. A subsection heading, or paragraph number can work in place of a page number.

When quotes include errors

Direct quotes often contain errors because writers and speakers are fallible. If the error is distracting, it is recommended that content be paraphrased. If the direct quote is required to understand the full meaning of the statement, the direct quote must match the original verbatim, including spelling and punctuation. If errors make the direct quote difficult to read, the word “[ sic ],” italicized and in brackets, can be inserted immediately after the error within the quote.

Changing quotes

There are a very limited number of cases in which a direct quote may need to be edited or changed, such as capitalizing the beginning of a sentence or adding punctuation to the end of the quote. All changes must be indicated. Square brackets should be used to highlight any additions or explanations inserted into a direct quote. In the case of omitting words within a quotation, an ellipsis in parenthesis can be used.

When respondents provide direct quotes

When conducting research, participants are often quoted regarding their perceptions or experiences. The same rules apply, but it is important to mention that the quote is from a research respondent. Ethical considerations should also take priority when determining whether to name direct quotes from participants.

Short, direct quote examples:

Mr. Ripley remarked, “I certainly didn’t mean to alarm anybody when I said what I did about his depression. I felt it was a kind of duty to tell you and Mr. Greenleaf” in his attempt to shift attention away from his wrongdoing (Highsmith, 1955, p. 190).

As Highsmith (1955) describes, Mr. Ripley couldn’t be sure if he had been found out, “Tom was wringing the shoe in his hands like a pair of gloves now, yet still keeping the shoe in position, because Marge was staring at him in a funny way. She was thinking. Was she kidding him?” (p. 216).

Block quotes: The longer the quote, the bigger the block

Sometimes less than 40 words isn’t long enough for a direct quote to make its mark. That’s when a block quote is necessary.

Here are block quote guidelines:

• A block quotation starts on a new line with a 0.5-inch indentation from the left margin.
• The lines are double spaced (like the rest of the paper).
• There are no quotation marks at either the beginning or end of the block.
• Note: Longer passages like block quotes can also be credited using APA footnotes .

Block quote example 1:

Lawyers often enjoy laughing at themselves, as is evident in the book, The World’s Funniest Lawyer Jokes , which includes this anecdote:

An airliner was having engine trouble, and the pilot instructed the cabin crew to have the passengers take their seats and get prepared for an emergency landing. A few minutes later, the pilot asked the flight attendants if everyone was buckled up and ready. ‘All set back here, Captain.’ came the reply, ‘except the lawyers are still going around passing out business cards.’ (Price, 2011, p. 103)

Block quote example 2:

McCullough (1968) describes the Johnstown Flood of 1889 as it passed through and devastated several Pennsylvania towns:

Unlike East Conemaugh, Woodvale got no warning. It was all over in about five minutes. The only building left standing was the woolen mill, and there was only part of that. At the western end of the town, the end almost touching Johnstown, stood the Gautier works, part of it in Woodvale, part in Conemaugh borough. The huge works sent up a terrific geyser of steam when the water hit its boilers, and then the whole of it seemed simply to lift up and slide off with the water … There was not a tree, not a telegraph pole, not a sign of where the railroad has been. Two hundred and fifty-five houses had been taken off, and there was no way of telling where they had been. (p. 127)

Published October 28, 2020.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
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• Magazine Article
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• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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Dissertation & Doctoral Project Formatting & Clearance: Citing In Text

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In-Text Citation Basics

Author/Date Citation Method

APA publications use the author/date in text citation system to briefly identify sources to readers.  Each in-text citation is listed alphabetically in the reference list.  All in-text citations referenced in the body of work musr appear in the reference list and vice versa.

The author-date method includes the author's surname and the the publication year.  Do not include suffixes such as Jr., Esq., etc.

(Jones, 2009)

The author/date method is also used with direct quotes.  Another component is added in this format:

(Jones, 2009, p.19)

When multiple pages are referenced, use pp.

(Jones, 2009, pp.19-21)

Variations of author/date within a sentence

Here are some examples of how the author/date citation method are formatted within different parts of a sentence. Please note the author, publication date, and study are entirely fictional (see APA, p.174).

Beginning of a sentence:

Jones (2009) completed a study on the effects of dark chocolate on heart disease.

Middle of a sentence:

In 2009, Jones's study on the effects of dark chocolate and heart disease revealed...

End of a sentence:

The study revealed that participants who ate dark chocolate bars every day did not develop heart disease (Jones, 2009).

Citing a specific part of source (chapter, tables, figures, or equations)

When citing a particular part of a source, it is important to indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or equation.  Remember to always give page numbers for direct quotations (see APA, section 6.19, p. 179). 

Correct abbreviations continue to be used (see APA, sections 4.22 - 4.30).

(National Chocolate Lovers Association, 2007, p.17)

(Jones, 2009, Chapter 8)

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is great because it allows you to use your own words and your own voice.  It demonstrates that you truly understand what the author is saying. Word of caution: Avoid changing the author's meaning and/or plagiarizing the author.  Looking up certain words within the thesaurus is not paraphrasing.  It is also important to cite the author while paraphrasing.

Here is an example of paraphrasing:

Original citation:

"With rates of childhood obesity climbing over the last decade, some parents and policy-makers have thought to consider whether the availability of endless soda and junk food in school vending machines might be contributing to the problem—and if banning those foods in schools might help solve it" (Price, 2012).

Paraphrase:

Price discusses the possibility that the availability of unhealthy, sugary snacks and drinks in school vending machines has contributed to the rising epidemic of obesity in children.  In an effort to eliminate the source of the problem, some of have proposed implementing a ban (2012).

Direct Quotes: the Short and Long

Direct quotations are sometimes necessary to truly convey the author's meaning to the reader.  When directly quoting an author(s),  (a) the quote must be relevant to your argument, (b) it needs to smoothly transition between what comes first and move to what comes later, (c), it must fit logically and make grammatical sense, and (d) it should be no longer than absolutely necessary.

When reproducing an author's word directly, it is extremely important to quote and cite.  Direct quotations with citation prevents plagiarism and gives the author credit for his/her work. The parenthetical cite should always contain the author's surname, the publication year of the work, and the page citation or paragraph number (for nonpaginated material).

Direct quotations can vary in length.  Quotes fewer than 40 words should be incorporated into the text of the paragraph.  Quotes comprised of 40 or more words, need to be formatted in block quotes.  (see APA, section 6.03, pp.170 - 173; and APA Style Blog , "How to Cite Direct Quotations" or APA Style Blog , "You Can Quote Me on This").

Short, direct quotes (less than 40 words):

Author and quote separated

Bell and Shank (2007) identify that "[a]t least one survey identified library instruction as the type of collaboration mentioned most frequently by librarians" (p.67).

Article retrieved online (see APA, section 6.05, p.171-172)

Price (2012) notes "[t]he results aren't huge, but apparently these laws have a real—and positive—effect on students' health" (para.4).

Author and quote together

"Design is designed in many ways.  By one definition it is the conscious examination of objects and processes to determine how they can be made better" (Bell & Shank, 2007, p. 23).

" The books, sold in the United States, share a piece of a foreign culture, while profits are put back into the country the story came from" (Anthony, 2012, para. 2).

Long, block quotes (40 words or more):

Formatting rules:

• Indent the block quote five spaces or half an inch. • Do not use quotation marks. • Double space the quote unless your school has a rule about single spacing block quotes. • Do not include any additional lines or spaces before or after the block quote. • Notice that in block quotes, the period goes before the parentheses, not after.

Michelli (2007) uses the coffee chain, Starbucks, as example on how to become extraordinary.  He discusses in detail various principles he discovered during his research on the renowned company.  One of the principles focuses on "making it your own."  He writes,

Like most companies, Starbucks has wrestled with ways to invite its partners to fully engage their passions and talents everyday in every interaction at wor.  Simultaneously, the leadership has to ensure that individual partners' differences are blending into a generally uniform experience for customers.  Finding a balance between these two important, yet somtimes divergent, leadership responsibilities can be awkward.  Yet through its principle of Make It Your Own, Starbucks has succeeded in creating a unique model that encourages partners at all levels to pour their creative energy and dedication into everything they do. (p. 20)

This principle does not only apply to businesses; it can be part of anyone's personal beliefs.

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Direct Quotation of Material Without Page Numbers

Textual works.

To directly quote from written material that does not contain page numbers (e.g., webpages and websites, some ebooks), provide readers with another way of locating the quoted passage. Any of the following approaches is acceptable; use the approach that will best help readers find the quotation.

• Provide a heading or section name. It is okay to abbreviate a long or unwieldy heading or section name.

For people with osteoarthritis, “painful joints should be moved through a full range of motion every day to maintain flexibility and to slow deterioration of cartilage” (Gecht-Silver & Duncombe, 2015, Osteoarthritis section).

Direct quotations of material without page numbers are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 8.28 and the Concise Guide Section 8.28

• Provide a paragraph number (count the paragraphs manually if they are not numbered).

People planning for retirement need more than just money—they also “need to stockpile their emotional reserves” to ensure adequate support from family and friends (Chamberlin, 2014, para. 1).

• Provide a heading or section name in combination with a paragraph number.

Music and language are intertwined in the brain such that “people who are better at rhythmic memory skills tend to excel at language skills as well” (DeAngelis, 2018, Musical Forays section, para. 4).

Do not include Kindle location numbers with in-text citations. Instead, provide the page number (which is available in many Kindle books, especially those based on print editions) or use the methods described on this page to create a page number alternative.

Note that the name of the section or other part of the work will not necessarily appear in the reference list entry for the work. For example, if you cite a particular section of a webpage or website in the text, the reference list entry should be for the page you used, not for only that section of the page.

Audiovisual works

To directly quote from an audiovisual work (e.g., audiobook, YouTube video, TED Talk, TV show), provide a time stamp for the beginning of the quotation in place of a page number.

People make “sweeping inferences and judgments from body language” (Cuddy, 2012, 2:12).

Works with canonically numbered sections

To directly quote from material with canonically numbered sections (e.g., religious or classical works), use the name of the book, chapter, verse, line, and/or canto instead of a page number.

The person vowed to “set me as a seal upon thine heart” ( King James Bible , 1769/2017, Song of Solomon 8:6).

For plays, cite the act, scene, and line(s). In the following example, “1.3.36–37” refers to Act 1, Scene 3, Lines 36 and 37.

In Much Ado About Nothing , Don John said, “In the meantime / let me be that I am and seek not to alter me” (Shakespeare, 1623/1995, 1.3.36–37).

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What is a thesis?

What is a dissertation, getting started, staying on track.

A thesis is a long-term project that you work on over the course of a semester or a year. Theses have a very wide variety of styles and content, so we encourage you to look at prior examples and work closely with faculty to develop yours. 

Before you begin, make sure that you are familiar with the dissertation genre—what it is for and what it looks like.

Generally speaking, a dissertation’s purpose is to prove that you have the expertise necessary to fulfill your doctoral-degree requirements by showing depth of knowledge and independent thinking.

The form of a dissertation may vary by discipline. Be sure to follow the specific guidelines of your department.

• PhD This site directs candidates to the GSAS website about dissertations , with links to checklists,  planning, formatting, acknowledgments, submission, and publishing options. There is also a link to guidelines for the prospectus . Consult with your committee chair about specific requirements and standards for your dissertation.
• DDES This document covers planning, patent filing, submission guidelines, publishing options, formatting guidelines, sample pages, citation guidelines, and a list of common errors to avoid. There is also a link to guidelines for the prospectus .
• Scholarly Pursuits (GSAS) This searchable booklet from Harvard GSAS is a comprehensive guide to writing dissertations, dissertation-fellowship applications, academic journal articles, and academic job documents.

Finding an original topic can be a daunting and overwhelming task. These key concepts can help you focus and save time.

Finding a topic for your thesis or dissertation should start with a research question that excites or at least interests you. A rigorous, engaging, and original project will require continuous curiosity about your topic, about your own thoughts on the topic, and about what other scholars have said on your topic. Avoid getting boxed in by thinking you know what you want to say from the beginning; let your research and your writing evolve as you explore and fine-tune your focus through constant questioning and exploration.

Get a sense of the broader picture before you narrow your focus and attempt to frame an argument. Read, skim, and otherwise familiarize yourself with what other scholars have done in areas related to your proposed topic. Briefly explore topics tangentially related to yours to broaden your perspective and increase your chance of finding a unique angle to pursue.

Critical Reading

Critical reading is the opposite of passive reading. Instead of merely reading for information to absorb, critical reading also involves careful, sustained thinking about what you are reading. This process may include analyzing the author’s motives and assumptions, asking what might be left out of the discussion, considering what you agree with or disagree with in the author’s statements and why you agree or disagree, and exploring connections or contradictions between scholarly arguments. Here is a resource to help hone your critical-reading skills:

http://writing.umn.edu/sws/assets/pdf/quicktips/criticalread.pdf

Conversation

Your thesis or dissertation will incorporate some ideas from other scholars whose work you researched. By reading critically and following your curiosity, you will develop your own ideas and claims, and these contributions are the core of your project. You will also acknowledge the work of scholars who came before you, and you must accurately and fairly attribute this work and define your place within the larger discussion. Make sure that you know how to quote, summarize, paraphrase ,  integrate , and cite secondary sources to avoid plagiarism and to show the depth and breadth of your knowledge.

A thesis is a long-term, large project that involves both research and writing; it is easy to lose focus, motivation, and momentum. Here are suggestions for achieving the result you want in the time you have.

The dissertation is probably the largest project you have undertaken, and a lot of the work is self-directed. The project can feel daunting or even overwhelming unless you break it down into manageable pieces and create a timeline for completing each smaller task. Be realistic but also challenge yourself, and be forgiving of yourself if you miss a self-imposed deadline here and there.

Your program will also have specific deadlines for different requirements, including establishing a committee, submitting a prospectus, completing the dissertation, defending the dissertation, and submitting your work. Consult your department’s website for these dates and incorporate them into the timeline for your work.

Accountability

Sometimes self-imposed deadlines do not feel urgent unless there is accountability to someone beyond yourself. To increase your motivation to complete tasks on schedule, set dates with your committee chair to submit pre-determined pieces of a chapter. You can also arrange with a fellow doctoral student to check on each other’s progress. Research and writing can be lonely, so it is also nice to share that journey with someone and support each other through the process.

Common Pitfalls

The most common challenges for students writing a dissertation are writer’s block, information-overload, and the compulsion to keep researching forever.

There are many strategies for avoiding writer’s block, such as freewriting, outlining, taking a walk, starting in the middle, and creating an ideal work environment for your particular learning style. Pay attention to what helps you and try different things until you find what works.

Efficient researching techniques are essential to avoiding information-overload. Here are a couple of resources about strategies for finding sources and quickly obtaining essential information from them.

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_literature/writing_in_literature_detailed_discussion/reading_criticism.html

https://students.dartmouth.edu/academic-skills/learning-resources/learning-strategies/reading-techniques

Finally, remember that there is always more to learn and your dissertation cannot incorporate everything. Follow your curiosity but also set limits on the scope of your work. It helps to create a folder entitled “future projects” for topics and sources that interest you but that do not fit neatly into the dissertation. Also remember that future scholars will build off of your work, so leave something for them to do.

Browsing through theses and dissertations of the past can help to get a sense of your options and gain inspiration but be careful to use current guidelines and refer to your committee instead of relying on these examples for form or formatting.

DASH Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard.

HOLLIS Harvard Library’s catalog provides access to ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global .

MIT Architecture has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

Rhode Island School of Design has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

University of South Florida has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

Harvard GSD has a list of projects, including theses and professors’ research.

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• Chicago In-text Citations | Styles, Format & Examples

Chicago In-text Citations | Styles, Format & Examples

Published on September 12, 2019 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on April 9, 2024.

An in-text citation is used to point readers toward any source you quote , paraphrase or refer to in your writing. The Chicago Manual of Style has two options for in-text citations:

• Author-date : you put your citations in parentheses within the text itself.
• Notes and bibliography : you put your citations in numbered footnotes or endnotes.

You should choose one of these two citation options and use it consistently throughout your text. The source details are listed in full in a bibliography or reference list at the end. Make sure to pay attention to punctuation (e.g., commas and quotation marks ).

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Author-date citation example

(Woolf 1921, 11)

Footnote citation example

1. Woolf, “Modern Fiction,” 11.

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Table of contents

Which chicago style should you use, option 1: author-date in-text citations, option 2: citations in footnotes or endnotes, citing sources with multiple authors, missing information in chicago in-text citations, frequently asked questions about chicago in-text citations.

First, you need to decide whether you are using notes or author-date in-text citations. You can usually find out from your instructor or syllabus which style you should use.

The notes and bibliography system is usually preferred in humanities subjects like literature, history and the arts. The author-date system is preferred in the sciences, including social sciences.

The styles are similar in the information they present, but they differ in terms of the order, location, and format of that information. It’s important to use one style consistently, and not to confuse the two.

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Author-date style places citations directly in the text in parentheses . In-text citations include the author’s last name, the year of publication, and if applicable, a page number or page range:

This style of Chicago in-text citation looks the same for every type of source.

When using author-date, you should always include a reference list  with an entry corresponding to each citation. This provides the reader with full publication information to locate the source.

Where should citations appear in the text?

The author-date style gives you some flexibility in where you place your citations in the text.

Most commonly, you will put the citation at the end of the relevant sentence (before the period). You can also integrate it into the sentence. If you name the author in your sentence, you only need to include the date and page number in parentheses.

Multiple citations can also be combined within one set of parentheses using a semicolon .

As you can see in the Valentine citation, it’s not always necessary to include a page number—only when you’re referring to a specific part of the text. If you want to cite the text as a whole, you can leave out the page number.

In notes and bibliography style, your citations appear in either footnotes or endnotes .

To create a Chicago footnote or endnote reference, a superscript number is placed at the end of the clause or sentence that the citation applies to, after any punctuation (periods, quotation marks , parentheses ). Your first citation is marked with a 1, your second with a 2, and so on.

These superscript numbers correspond to numbered footnotes or endnotes containing the actual citation.

Full notes and short notes

There are two types of note you can use in Chicago style: full and short.

• Full notes contain the full publication details of the source.
• Short notes contain the author’s last name, the title (shortened if it is longer than four words), and the page number (if relevant).

You should usually use a full note the first time you cite each source. If you cite the same source more than once, use a short note for each subsequent citation. You may also use “ ibid. ” to repeat the citation from the previous note, but short notes are the more usual choice.

The rules of your specific institution may vary, requiring you to use one of the two note styles every time. It’s important to check with your instructor if you’re unsure.

This is what a full and short note for the same citation might look like:

The format of the note varies depending on the type of source. Below you can see examples of a Chicago website citation , book citation , book chapter citation , and journal article citation .

Chicago footnote citation examples

• Book chapter
• Journal article

Footnotes or endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to, while endnotes appear in their own section at the end of the text, before the Chicago style bibliography .

The citation looks exactly the same whether it appears in a footnote or an endnote . If you haven’t been told which one to use, the choice is a matter of personal preference. The important thing is to consistently use one or the other.

In both styles, when you cite a source with two or three authors, list the names in the order they appear in the original publication:

When a source has four or more authors, use the term “ et al. ” after the first author’s name:

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Sometimes, not all of the information you need for your citation will be available. Thankfully, there are ways to work around this in both styles.

No page number

Page numbers are not always necessary; if the source doesn’t have page numbers (e.g., a website ), or if you’re referring to the general argument of a text instead of a specific passage, you can omit page numbers.

If a source has no page numbers but you still want to specify a particular part of the text, you can use other locators like paragraphs, chapters or headings instead—whatever markers the text provides:

No publication date

If the source doesn’t have a stated publication date, you can write “n.d.” in place of the year:

If no specific author is listed, you can refer to the organization that published the source:

Page numbers should be included in your Chicago in-text citations when:

• You’re quoting from the text.
• You’re paraphrasing a particular passage.
• You’re referring to information from a specific section.

When you’re referring to the overall argument or general content of a source, it’s unnecessary to include page numbers.

When a source has four or more authors , your in-text citation or Chicago footnote should give only the first author’s name followed by “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”). This makes your citations more concise.

In your bibliography or reference list , when a source has more than 10 authors, list the first seven followed by “et al.” Otherwise, list every author.

• A reference list is used with Chicago author-date citations .
• A bibliography is used with Chicago footnote citations .

Both present the exact same information; the only difference is the placement of the year in source citations:

• In a reference list entry, the publication year appears directly after the author’s name.
• In a bibliography entry, the year appears near the end of the entry (the exact placement depends on the source type).

There are also other types of bibliography that work as stand-alone texts, such as a Chicago annotated bibliography .

In Chicago author-date style , your text must include a reference list . It appears at the end of your paper and gives full details of every source you cited.

In notes and bibliography style, you use Chicago style footnotes to cite sources; a bibliography is optional but recommended. If you don’t include one, be sure to use a full note for the first citation of each source.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , the usual standard is to use a full note for the first citation of each source, and short notes for any subsequent citations of the same source.

However, your institution’s guidelines may differ from the standard rule. In some fields, you’re required to use a full note every time, whereas in some other fields you can use short notes every time, as long as all sources are listed in your bibliography . If you’re not sure, check with your instructor.

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Caulfield, J. (2024, April 09). Chicago In-text Citations | Styles, Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 4, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/chicago-style/chicago-in-text-citation/

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