assignment by reference

Pass by Reference in Python: Background and Best Practices

Table of Contents

Defining Pass by Reference

Contrasting pass by reference and pass by value, avoiding duplicate objects, returning multiple values, creating conditional multiple-return functions, understanding assignment in python, exploring function arguments, best practice: return and reassign, best practice: use object attributes, best practice: use dictionaries and lists.

Watch Now This tutorial has a related video course created by the Real Python team. Watch it together with the written tutorial to deepen your understanding: Pass by Reference in Python: Best Practices

After gaining some familiarity with Python, you may notice cases in which your functions don’t modify arguments in place as you might expect, especially if you’re familiar with other programming languages. Some languages handle function arguments as references to existing variables , which is known as pass by reference . Other languages handle them as independent values , an approach known as pass by value .

If you’re an intermediate Python programmer who wishes to understand Python’s peculiar way of handling function arguments, then this tutorial is for you. You’ll implement real use cases of pass-by-reference constructs in Python and learn several best practices to avoid pitfalls with your function arguments.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn:

• What it means to pass by reference and why you’d want to do so
• How passing by reference differs from both passing by value and Python’s unique approach
• How function arguments behave in Python
• How you can use certain mutable types to pass by reference in Python
• What the best practices are for replicating pass by reference in Python

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Before you dive into the technical details of passing by reference, it’s helpful to take a closer look at the term itself by breaking it down into components:

• Pass means to provide an argument to a function.
• By reference means that the argument you’re passing to the function is a reference to a variable that already exists in memory rather than an independent copy of that variable.

Since you’re giving the function a reference to an existing variable, all operations performed on this reference will directly affect the variable to which it refers. Let’s look at some examples of how this works in practice.

Below, you’ll see how to pass variables by reference in C#. Note the use of the ref keyword in the highlighted lines:

As you can see, the refParameter of squareRef() must be declared with the ref keyword, and you must also use the keyword when calling the function. Then the argument will be passed in by reference and can be modified in place.

Python has no ref keyword or anything equivalent to it. If you attempt to replicate the above example as closely as possible in Python, then you’ll see different results:

In this case, the arg variable is not altered in place. It seems that Python treats your supplied argument as a standalone value rather than a reference to an existing variable. Does this mean Python passes arguments by value rather than by reference?

Not quite. Python passes arguments neither by reference nor by value, but by assignment . Below, you’ll quickly explore the details of passing by value and passing by reference before looking more closely at Python’s approach. After that, you’ll walk through some best practices for achieving the equivalent of passing by reference in Python.

When you pass function arguments by reference, those arguments are only references to existing values. In contrast, when you pass arguments by value, those arguments become independent copies of the original values.

Let’s revisit the C# example, this time without using the ref keyword. This will cause the program to use the default behavior of passing by value:

Here, you can see that squareVal() doesn’t modify the original variable. Rather, valParameter is an independent copy of the original variable arg . While that matches the behavior you would see in Python, remember that Python doesn’t exactly pass by value. Let’s prove it.

Python’s built-in id() returns an integer representing the memory address of the desired object. Using id() , you can verify the following assertions:

• Function arguments initially refer to the same address as their original variables.
• Reassigning the argument within the function gives it a new address while the original variable remains unmodified.

In the below example, note that the address of x initially matches that of n but changes after reassignment, while the address of n never changes:

The fact that the initial addresses of n and x are the same when you invoke increment() proves that the x argument is not being passed by value. Otherwise, n and x would have distinct memory addresses.

Before you learn the details of how Python handles arguments, let’s take a look at some practical use cases of passing by reference.

Using Pass by Reference Constructs

Passing variables by reference is one of several strategies you can use to implement certain programming patterns. While it’s seldom necessary, passing by reference can be a useful tool.

In this section, you’ll look at three of the most common patterns for which passing by reference is a practical approach. You’ll then see how you can implement each of these patterns with Python.

As you’ve seen, passing a variable by value will cause a copy of that value to be created and stored in memory. In languages that default to passing by value, you may find performance benefits from passing the variable by reference instead, especially when the variable holds a lot of data. This will be more apparent when your code is running on resource-constrained machines.

In Python, however, this is never a problem. You’ll see why in the next section .

One of the most common applications of passing by reference is to create a function that alters the value of the reference parameters while returning a distinct value. You can modify your pass-by-reference C# example to illustrate this technique:

In the example above, greet() returns a greeting string and also modifies the value of counter . Now try to reproduce this as closely as possible in Python:

counter isn’t incremented in the above example because, as you’ve previously learned, Python has no way of passing values by reference. So how can you achieve the same outcome as you did with C#?

In essence, reference parameters in C# allow the function not only to return a value but also to operate on additional parameters. This is equivalent to returning multiple values!

Luckily, Python already supports returning multiple values. Strictly speaking, a Python function that returns multiple values actually returns a tuple containing each value:

As you can see, to return multiple values, you can simply use the return keyword followed by comma-separated values or variables.

Armed with this technique, you can change the return statement in greet() from your previous Python code to return both a greeting and a counter:

That still doesn’t look right. Although greet() now returns multiple values, they’re being printed as a tuple , which isn’t your intention. Furthermore, the original counter variable remains at 0 .

To clean up your output and get the desired results, you’ll have to reassign your counter variable with each call to greet() :

Now, after reassigning each variable with a call to greet() , you can see the desired results!

Assigning return values to variables is the best way to achieve the same results as passing by reference in Python. You’ll learn why, along with some additional methods, in the section on best practices .

This is a specific use case of returning multiple values in which the function can be used in a conditional statement and has additional side effects like modifying an external variable that was passed in as an argument.

Consider the standard Int32.TryParse function in C#, which returns a Boolean and operates on a reference to an integer argument at the same time:

This function attempts to convert a string into a 32-bit signed integer using the out keyword . There are two possible outcomes:

• If parsing succeeds , then the output parameter will be set to the resulting integer, and the function will return true .
• If parsing fails , then the output parameter will be set to 0 , and the function will return false .

You can see this in practice in the following example, which attempts to convert a number of different strings:

The above code, which attempts to convert differently formatted strings into integers via TryParse() , outputs the following:

To implement a similar function in Python, you could use multiple return values as you’ve seen previously:

This tryparse() returns two values. The first value indicates whether the conversion was successful, and the second holds the result (or None , in case of failure).

However, using this function is a little clunky because you need to unpack the return values with every call. This means you can’t use the function within an if statement :

Even though it generally works by returning multiple values, tryparse() can’t be used in a condition check. That means you have some more work to do.

You can take advantage of Python’s flexibility and simplify the function to return a single value of different types depending on whether the conversion succeeds:

With the ability for Python functions to return different data types, you can now use this function within a conditional statement. But how? Wouldn’t you have to call the function first, assigning its return value, and then check the value itself?

By taking advantage of Python’s flexibility in object types, as well as the new assignment expressions in Python 3.8, you can call this simplified function within a conditional if statement and get the return value if the check passes:

Wow! This Python version of tryparse() is even more powerful than the C# version, allowing you to use it within conditional statements and in arithmetic expressions.

With a little ingenuity, you’ve replicated a specific and useful pass-by-reference pattern without actually passing arguments by reference. In fact, you are yet again assigning return values when using the assignment expression operator( := ) and using the return value directly in Python expressions.

So far, you’ve learned what passing by reference means, how it differs from passing by value, and how Python’s approach is different from both. Now you’re ready to take a closer look at how Python handles function arguments!

Passing Arguments in Python

Python passes arguments by assignment. That is, when you call a Python function, each function argument becomes a variable to which the passed value is assigned.

Therefore, you can learn important details about how Python handles function arguments by understanding how the assignment mechanism itself works, even outside functions.

Python’s language reference for assignment statements provides the following details:

• If the assignment target is an identifier, or variable name, then this name is bound to the object. For example, in x = 2 , x is the name and 2 is the object.
• If the name is already bound to a separate object, then it’s re-bound to the new object. For example, if x is already 2 and you issue x = 3 , then the variable name x is re-bound to 3 .

All Python objects are implemented in a particular structure. One of the properties of this structure is a counter that keeps track of how many names have been bound to this object.

Note: This counter is called a reference counter because it keeps track of how many references, or names, point to the same object. Do not confuse reference counter with the concept of passing by reference, as the two are unrelated.

The Python documentation provides additional details on reference counts .

Let’s stick to the x = 2 example and examine what happens when you assign a value to a new variable:

• If an object representing the value 2 already exists, then it’s retrieved. Otherwise, it’s created.
• The reference counter of this object is incremented.
• An entry is added in the current namespace to bind the identifier x to the object representing 2 . This entry is in fact a key-value pair stored in a dictionary ! A representation of that dictionary is returned by locals() or globals() .

Now here’s what happens if you reassign x to a different value:

• The reference counter of the object representing 2 is decremented.
• The reference counter of the object that represents the new value is incremented.
• The dictionary for the current namespace is updated to relate x to the object representing the new value.

Python allows you to obtain the reference counts for arbitrary values with the function sys.getrefcount() . You can use it to illustrate how assignment increases and decreases these reference counters. Note that the interactive interpreter employs behavior that will yield different results, so you should run the following code from a file:

This script will show the reference counts for each value prior to assignment, after assignment, and after reassignment:

These results illustrate the relationship between identifiers (variable names) and Python objects that represent distinct values. When you assign multiple variables to the same value, Python increments the reference counter for the existing object and updates the current namespace rather than creating duplicate objects in memory.

In the next section, you’ll build upon your current understanding of assignment operations by exploring how Python handles function arguments.

Function arguments in Python are local variables . What does that mean? Local is one of Python’s scopes . These scopes are represented by the namespace dictionaries mentioned in the previous section. You can use locals() and globals() to retrieve the local and global namespace dictionaries, respectively.

Upon execution, each function has its own local namespace:

Using locals() , you can demonstrate that function arguments become regular variables in the function’s local namespace. Let’s add an argument, my_arg , to the function:

You can also use sys.getrefcount() to show how function arguments increment the reference counter for an object:

The above script outputs reference counts for "my_value" first outside, then inside show_refcount() , showing a reference count increase of not one, but two!

That’s because, in addition to show_refcount() itself, the call to sys.getrefcount() inside show_refcount() also receives my_arg as an argument. This places my_arg in the local namespace for sys.getrefcount() , adding an extra reference to "my_value" .

By examining namespaces and reference counts inside functions, you can see that function arguments work exactly like assignments: Python creates bindings in the function’s local namespace between identifiers and Python objects that represent argument values. Each of these bindings increments the object’s reference counter.

Now you can see how Python passes arguments by assignment!

Replicating Pass by Reference With Python

Having examined namespaces in the previous section, you may be asking why global hasn’t been mentioned as one way to modify variables as if they were passed by reference:

Using the global statement generally takes away from the clarity of your code. It can create a number of issues, including the following:

• Free variables, seemingly unrelated to anything
• Functions without explicit arguments for said variables
• Functions that can’t be used generically with other variables or arguments since they rely on a single global variable
• Lack of thread safety when using global variables

Contrast the previous example with the following, which explicitly returns a value:

Much better! You avoid all potential issues with global variables, and by requiring an argument, you make your function clearer.

Despite being neither a pass-by-reference language nor a pass-by-value language, Python suffers no shortcomings in that regard. Its flexibility more than meets the challenge.

You’ve already touched on returning values from the function and reassigning them to a variable. For functions that operate on a single value, returning the value is much clearer than using a reference. Furthermore, since Python already uses pointers behind the scenes, there would be no additional performance benefits even if it were able to pass arguments by reference.

Aim to write single-purpose functions that return one value, then (re)assign that value to variables, as in the following example:

Returning and assigning values also makes your intention explicit and your code easier to understand and test.

For functions that operate on multiple values, you’ve already seen that Python is capable of returning a tuple of values . You even surpassed the elegance of Int32.TryParse() in C# thanks to Python’s flexibility!

If you need to operate on multiple values, then you can write single-purpose functions that return multiple values, then (re)assign those values to variables. Here’s an example:

When calling a function that returns multiple values, you can assign multiple variables at the same time.

Object attributes have their own place in Python’s assignment strategy. Python’s language reference for assignment statements states that if the target is an object’s attribute that supports assignment, then the object will be asked to perform the assignment on that attribute. If you pass the object as an argument to a function, then its attributes can be modified in place.

Write functions that accept objects with attributes, then operate directly on those attributes, as in the following example:

Note that square() needs to be written to operate directly on an attribute, which will be modified without the need to reassign a return value.

It’s worth repeating that you should make sure the attribute supports assignment! Here’s the same example with namedtuple , whose attributes are read-only:

Attempts to modify attributes that don’t allow modification result in an AttributeError .

Additionally, you should be mindful of class attributes . They will remain unchanged, and an instance attribute will be created and modified:

Since class attributes remain unchanged when modified through a class instance, you’ll need to remember to reference the instance attribute.

Dictionaries in Python are a different object type than all other built-in types. They’re referred to as mapping types . Python’s documentation on mapping types provides some insight into the term:

A mapping object maps hashable values to arbitrary objects. Mappings are mutable objects. There is currently only one standard mapping type, the dictionary. ( Source )

This tutorial doesn’t cover how to implement a custom mapping type, but you can replicate pass by reference using the humble dictionary. Here’s an example using a function that operates directly on dictionary elements:

Since you’re reassigning a value to a dictionary key, operating on dictionary elements is still a form of assignment. With dictionaries, you get the added practicality of accessing the modified value through the same dictionary object.

While lists aren’t mapping types, you can use them in a similar way to dictionaries because of two important characteristics: subscriptability and mutability . These characteristics are worthy of a little more explanation, but let’s first take a look at best practices for mimicking pass by reference using Python lists.

To replicate pass by reference using lists, write a function that operates directly on list elements:

Since you’re reassigning a value to an element within the list, operating on list elements is still a form of assignment. Similar to dictionaries, lists allow you to access the modified value through the same list object.

Now let’s explore subscriptability. An object is subscriptable when a subset of its structure can be accessed by index positions:

Lists, tuples, and strings are subscriptable, but sets are not. Attempting to access an element of an object that isn’t subscriptable will raise a TypeError .

Mutability is a broader topic requiring additional exploration and documentation reference . To keep things short, an object is mutable if its structure can be changed in place rather than requiring reassignment:

Lists and sets are mutable, as are dictionaries and other mapping types. Strings and tuples are not mutable. Attempting to modify an element of an immutable object will raise a TypeError .

Python works differently from languages that support passing arguments by reference or by value. Function arguments become local variables assigned to each value that was passed to the function. But this doesn’t prevent you from achieving the same results you’d expect when passing arguments by reference in other languages.

In this tutorial, you learned:

• How Python handles assigning values to variables
• How function arguments are passed by assignment in Python
• Why returning values is a best practice for replicating pass by reference
• How to use attributes , dictionaries , and lists as alternative best practices

You also learned some additional best practices for replicating pass-by-reference constructs in Python. You can use this knowledge to implement patterns that have traditionally required support for passing by reference.

To continue your Python journey, I encourage you to dive deeper into some of the related topics that you’ve encountered here, such as mutability , assignment expressions , and Python namespaces and scope .

Stay curious, and see you next time!

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Assignment operators (C# reference)

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The assignment operator = assigns the value of its right-hand operand to a variable, a property , or an indexer element given by its left-hand operand. The result of an assignment expression is the value assigned to the left-hand operand. The type of the right-hand operand must be the same as the type of the left-hand operand or implicitly convertible to it.

The assignment operator = is right-associative, that is, an expression of the form

is evaluated as

The following example demonstrates the usage of the assignment operator with a local variable, a property, and an indexer element as its left-hand operand:

The left-hand operand of an assignment receives the value of the right-hand operand. When the operands are of value types , assignment copies the contents of the right-hand operand. When the operands are of reference types , assignment copies the reference to the object.

This is called value assignment : the value is assigned.

ref assignment

Ref assignment = ref makes its left-hand operand an alias to the right-hand operand, as the following example demonstrates:

In the preceding example, the local reference variable arrayElement is initialized as an alias to the first array element. Then, it's ref reassigned to refer to the last array element. As it's an alias, when you update its value with an ordinary assignment operator = , the corresponding array element is also updated.

The left-hand operand of ref assignment can be a local reference variable , a ref field , and a ref , out , or in method parameter. Both operands must be of the same type.

Compound assignment

For a binary operator op , a compound assignment expression of the form

is equivalent to

except that x is only evaluated once.

Compound assignment is supported by arithmetic , Boolean logical , and bitwise logical and shift operators.

Null-coalescing assignment

You can use the null-coalescing assignment operator ??= to assign the value of its right-hand operand to its left-hand operand only if the left-hand operand evaluates to null . For more information, see the ?? and ??= operators article.

Operator overloadability

A user-defined type can't overload the assignment operator. However, a user-defined type can define an implicit conversion to another type. That way, the value of a user-defined type can be assigned to a variable, a property, or an indexer element of another type. For more information, see User-defined conversion operators .

A user-defined type can't explicitly overload a compound assignment operator. However, if a user-defined type overloads a binary operator op , the op= operator, if it exists, is also implicitly overloaded.

C# language specification

For more information, see the Assignment operators section of the C# language specification .

• C# operators and expressions
• ref keyword
• Use compound assignment (style rules IDE0054 and IDE0074)

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Objects and references

One of the key-points of PHP OOP that is often mentioned is that "objects are passed by references by default". This is not completely true. This section rectifies that general thought using some examples.

A PHP reference is an alias, which allows two different variables to write to the same value. In PHP, an object variable doesn't contain the object itself as value. It only contains an object identifier which allows object accessors to find the actual object. When an object is sent by argument, returned or assigned to another variable, the different variables are not aliases: they hold a copy of the identifier, which points to the same object.

Example #1 References and Objects

The above example will output:

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Use the same font throughout the text of your paper, including the title and any headings. APA lists the following options (p. 44):

• Sans serif fonts such as 11-point Calibri, 11 point-Arial, 10-point Lucida,
• Serif fonts such as 12-point Times new Roman, 11-point Georgia or 10-point Computer Modern.

(A serif font is one that has caps and tails - or "wiggly bits" - on it, like Times New Roman . The font used throughout this guide is a sans serif [without serif] font). You may want to check with your lecturer to see if they have a preference.

In addition APA suggests these fonts for the following circumstances:

• Within figures, use a sans serif font between 8 and 14 points.
• When presenting computer code, use a monospace font such as 10-point Lucida Console or 10-point Courier New.
• Footnotes: a 10-point font with single line spacing.

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"Double-space the entire paper, including the title page, abstract, text, headings, block quotations, reference list, table and figure notes, and appendices, with the following exceptions:" (p. 45)

• Table and figures: Words within tables and figures may be single-, one-and-a-half- or double-spaced depending on what you decide creates the best presentation.
• Footnotes: Footnotes appearing at the bottom of the page to which they refer may be single-spaced and formatted with the default settings on your word processing program i.e. Word.
• Equations: You may triple- or quadruple-space before and after equations.

"Use 1 in. (2.54 cm) margins on all sides (top, bottom, left, and right) of the page." If your subject outline or lecturer has requested specific margins (for example, 3cm on the left side), use those.

"Align the text to the left and leave the right margin uneven ('ragged'). Do not use full justification, which adjusts the spacing between words to make all lines the same length (flush with the margins).  Do not manually divide words at the end of a line" (p. 45).

Do not break hyphenated words. Do not manually break long DOIs or URLs.

Indentations:

"Indent the first line of every paragraph... for consistency, use the tab key... the default settings in most word-processing programs are acceptable. The remaining lines of the paragraph should be left-aligned." (p. 45)

Exceptions to the paragraph indentation requirements are as follows:

• Title pages to be centred.
• The first line of abstracts are left aligned (not indented).
• Block quotes are indented 1.27 cm (0.5 in). The first paragraph of a block quote is not indented further. Only the first line of the second and subsequent paragraphs (if there are any) are indented a further 1.27 cm (0.5 in). (see What if...Long quote  in this LibGuide)
• Level 1 headings, including appendix titles, are centred. Level 2 and Level 3 headings are left aligned..
• Table and figure captions, notes etc. are flush left.

Page numbers:

Page numbers should be flush right in the header of each page. Use the automatic page numbering function in Word to insert page numbers in the top right-hand corner. The title page is page number 1.

Reference List:

• Start the reference list on a new page after the text but before any appendices.
• Label the reference list References  (bold, centred, capitalised).
• Double-space all references.
• Use a hanging indent on all references (first line is flush left, the second and any subsequent lines are indented 1.27 cm (0.5 in). To apply a hanging indent in Word, highlight all of your references and press Ctrl + T  on a PC, or  Command (⌘) + T  on a Mac.

Level 1 Heading - Centered, Bold, Title Case

Text begins as a new paragraph i.e. first line indented...

Level 2 Heading - Flush Left, Bold, Title Case

Level 3 Heading - Flush Left, Bold, Italic, Title Case

Level 4 Heading Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Full Stop. Text begins on the same line...

Level 5 Heading, Bold, Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending with a Full Stop.  Text begins on the same line...

Please note : Any formatting requirements specified in the subject outline or any other document or web page supplied to the students by the lecturers should be followed instead of these guidelines.

What is an appendix?

Appendices contain matter that belongs with your paper, rather than in it.

For example, an appendix might contain

• the survey questions or scales you used for your research,
• detailed description of data that was referred to in your paper,
• long lists that are too unweildy to be given in the paper,
• correspondence recieved from the company you are analysing,
• copies of documents being discussed (if required),

You may be asked to include certain details or documents in appendices, or you may chose to use an appendix to illustrate details that would be inappropriate or distracting in the body of your text, but are still worth presenting to the readers of your paper.

Each topic should have its own appendix. For example, if you have a survey that you gave to participants and an assessment tool which was used to analyse the results of that survey, they should be in different appendices. However, if you are including a number of responses to that survey, do not put each response in a separate appendix, but group them together in one appendix as they belong together.

How do you format an appendix?

Appendices go at the very end of your paper , after your reference list. (If you are using footnotes, tables or figures, then the end of your paper will follow this pattern: reference list, footnotes, tables, figures, appendices).

Each appendix starts on a separate page. If you have only one appendix, it is simply labelled "Appendix". If you have more than one, they are given letters: "Appendix A", "Appendix B", "Appendix C", etc.

The label for your appendix (which is just "Appendix" or "Appendix A" - do not put anything else with it), like your refrerence list, is placed at the top of the page, centered and in bold , beginning with a capital letter.

You then give a title for your appendix, centered and in bold , on the next line.

Use title case for the appendix label and title.

The first paragraph of your appendix is not indented (it is flush with the left margin), but all other paragraphs follow the normal pattern of indenting the first line. Use double line spacing, just like you would for the body of your paper.

How do I refer to my appendices in my paper?

In your paper, when you mention information that will be included or expanded upon in your appendices, you refer to the appendix by its label and capitalise the letters that are capitalised in the label:

Questions in the survey were designed to illicit reflective responses (see Appendix A).

As the consent form in Appendix B illustrates...

How do I use references in my appendices?

Appendices are considered to be part of your paper for the purpose of referencing. Any in-text citations used in your appendix should be formatted exactly the same way you would format it in the body of your paper, and the references cited in your appendices will go in your reference list (they do not go in a special section of your reference list, but are treated like normal references).

If you have included reproduced matter in your appendices, treat them like an image or a table that has been copied or adapted. Place the information for the source in the notes under the reproduced matter (a full copyright acknowledgement for theses or works being published, or the shorter version used at JCU for assignments), and put the reference in the reference list.

• Thesis Formatting Guide Our Library Guide offers some advice on formatting a thesis for JCU higher degrees.
• Setting up a table in APA 7th
• Setting up a figure in APA 7th

If you are required to include an acknowledgement or disclaimer (for example, a statement of whether any part of your assignment was generated by AI, or if any part of your assignment was re-used, with permission, from a previous assignment), this should go in an author note .

The author note is placed on the bottom half of the title page, so if you are using an author note, you will need to use a title page. Place the section title Author Note in centre and in bold. Align the paragraph text as per a normal paragraph, beginning with an indent. See the second image on this page for an example of where to place the author note: Title Page Setup .

The APA Publication Manual lists several paragraphs that could be included in an author note, and specifies the order in which they should appear. For a student assignment, you will probably only require a paragraph or sentence on disclosures and acknowledgements.

An example author note for a student paper could be:

Author Note

This paper was prepared using Bing Copilot to assist with research and ChatGPT to assist with formatting the reference list. No generative AI software was used to create any part of the submitted text.

No generative AI software was used to create any part of this assignment.

• If the use of generative AI was permitted for drafting or developing parts of your assignment, you will need to include a description in the methodology section of your paper specifying what software was used, what it was used for and to what extent.
• If your subject outline has a specific disclaimer to use, use that wording in your author's note.
• If the use of generative AI software is permitted, you will still need to review the material produced by the software for suitability and accuracy, as the author of the paper is ultimately responsible for all of the content.
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Generate accurate APA citations for free

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APA Formatting and Citation (7th Ed.) | Generator, Template, Examples

Published on November 6, 2020 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on January 17, 2024.

The 7th edition of the APA Publication Manual provides guidelines for clear communication , citing sources , and formatting documents. This article focuses on paper formatting.

Generate accurate APA citations with Scribbr

Throughout your paper, you need to apply the following APA format guidelines:

• Set page margins to 1 inch on all sides.
• Double-space all text, including headings.
• Indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 inches.
• Use an accessible font (e.g., Times New Roman 12pt., Arial 11pt., or Georgia 11pt.).
• Include a page number on every page.

Let an expert format your paper

Our APA formatting experts can help you to format your paper according to APA guidelines. They can help you with:

• Margins, line spacing, and indentation
• Font and headings
• Running head and page numbering

Table of contents

How to set up apa format (with template), apa alphabetization guidelines, apa format template [free download], page header, headings and subheadings, reference page, tables and figures, frequently asked questions about apa format.

Are your APA in-text citations flawless?

The AI-powered APA Citation Checker points out every error, tells you exactly what’s wrong, and explains how to fix it. Say goodbye to losing marks on your assignment!

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References are ordered alphabetically by the first author’s last name. If the author is unknown, order the reference entry by the first meaningful word of the title (ignoring articles: “the”, “a”, or “an”).

Why set up APA format from scratch if you can download Scribbr’s template for free?

Student papers and professional papers have slightly different guidelines regarding the title page, abstract, and running head. Our template is available in Word and Google Docs format for both versions.

• Student paper: Word | Google Docs
• Professional paper: Word | Google Docs

In an APA Style paper, every page has a page header. For student papers, the page header usually consists of just a page number in the page’s top-right corner. For professional papers intended for publication, it also includes a running head .

A running head is simply the paper’s title in all capital letters. It is left-aligned and can be up to 50 characters in length. Longer titles are abbreviated .

APA headings have five possible levels. Heading level 1 is used for main sections such as “ Methods ” or “ Results ”. Heading levels 2 to 5 are used for subheadings. Each heading level is formatted differently.

Want to know how many heading levels you should use, when to use which heading level, and how to set up heading styles in Word or Google Docs? Then check out our in-depth article on APA headings .

The title page is the first page of an APA Style paper. There are different guidelines for student and professional papers.

Both versions include the paper title and author’s name and affiliation. The student version includes the course number and name, instructor name, and due date of the assignment. The professional version includes an author note and running head .

For more information on writing a striking title, crediting multiple authors (with different affiliations), and writing the author note, check out our in-depth article on the APA title page .

The abstract is a 150–250 word summary of your paper. An abstract is usually required in professional papers, but it’s rare to include one in student papers (except for longer texts like theses and dissertations).

The abstract is placed on a separate page after the title page . At the top of the page, write the section label “Abstract” (bold and centered). The contents of the abstract appear directly under the label. Unlike regular paragraphs, the first line is not indented. Abstracts are usually written as a single paragraph without headings or blank lines.

Directly below the abstract, you may list three to five relevant keywords . On a new line, write the label “Keywords:” (italicized and indented), followed by the keywords in lowercase letters, separated by commas.

APA Style does not provide guidelines for formatting the table of contents . It’s also not a required paper element in either professional or student papers. If your instructor wants you to include a table of contents, it’s best to follow the general guidelines.

Place the table of contents on a separate page between the abstract and introduction. Write the section label “Contents” at the top (bold and centered), press “Enter” once, and list the important headings with corresponding page numbers.

The APA reference page is placed after the main body of your paper but before any appendices . Here you list all sources that you’ve cited in your paper (through APA in-text citations ). APA provides guidelines for formatting the references as well as the page itself.

Creating APA Style references

Play around with the Scribbr Citation Example Generator below to learn about the APA reference format of the most common source types or generate APA citations for free with Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator .

Formatting the reference page

Write the section label “References” at the top of a new page (bold and centered). Place the reference entries directly under the label in alphabetical order.

Finally, apply a hanging indent , meaning the first line of each reference is left-aligned, and all subsequent lines are indented 0.5 inches.

Tables and figures are presented in a similar format. They’re preceded by a number and title and followed by explanatory notes (if necessary).

Use bold styling for the word “Table” or “Figure” and the number, and place the title on a separate line directly below it (in italics and title case). Try to keep tables clean; don’t use any vertical lines, use as few horizontal lines as possible, and keep row and column labels concise.

Keep the design of figures as simple as possible. Include labels and a legend if needed, and only use color when necessary (not to make it look more appealing).

Check out our in-depth article about table and figure notes to learn when to use notes and how to format them.

The easiest way to set up APA format in Word is to download Scribbr’s free APA format template for student papers or professional papers.

Alternatively, you can watch Scribbr’s 5-minute step-by-step tutorial or check out our APA format guide with examples.

APA Style papers should be written in a font that is legible and widely accessible. For example:

• Times New Roman (12pt.)
• Arial (11pt.)
• Calibri (11pt.)
• Georgia (11pt.)

The same font and font size is used throughout the document, including the running head , page numbers, headings , and the reference page . Text in footnotes and figure images may be smaller and use single line spacing.

You need an APA in-text citation and reference entry . Each source type has its own format; for example, a webpage citation is different from a book citation .

Use Scribbr’s free APA Citation Generator to generate flawless citations in seconds or take a look at our APA citation examples .

Yes, page numbers are included on all pages, including the title page , table of contents , and reference page . Page numbers should be right-aligned in the page header.

To insert page numbers in Microsoft Word or Google Docs, click ‘Insert’ and then ‘Page number’.

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2024, January 17). APA Formatting and Citation (7th Ed.) | Generator, Template, Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 8, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/format/

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PHP References Assign by Reference

Fastest entity framework extensions.

This is the first phase of referencing. Essentially when you assign by reference , you're allowing two variables to share the same value as such.

$foo and $bar are equal here. They do not point to one another. They point to the same place ( the "value" ).

You can also assign by reference within the array() language construct. While not strictly being an assignment by reference.

Note , however, that references inside arrays are potentially dangerous. Doing a normal (not by reference) assignment with a reference on the right side does not turn the left side into a reference, but references inside arrays are preserved in these normal assignments. This also applies to function calls where the array is passed by value.

Assigning by reference is not only limited to variables and arrays, they are also present for functions and all "pass-by-reference" associations.

Assignment is key within the function definition as above. You can not pass an expression by reference, only a value/variable. Hence the instantiation of $a in bar() .

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APA Citation Guide (7th edition) : Reference List Information, Sample Papers, and Templates

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Sample Paper

This sample paper includes a title page, sample assignment page and references list in APA format. It can be used as a template to set up your assignment.

• APA 7 Sample Research Paper

If your instructor requires you to use APA style headings and sub-headings, this document will show you how they work.

• APA 7 Headings Template

If you are adding an appendix to your paper there are a few rules to follow that comply with APA guidelines:

• The Appendix appears  after  the References list
• If you have more than one appendix you would name the first appendix Appendix A, the second Appendix B, etc.
• The appendices should appear in the order that the information is mentioned in your paper
• Each appendix begins on a new page

APA End of Paper Checklist

Finished your assignment? Use this checklist to be sure you haven't missed any information needed for APA style.

• APA 7 End of Paper Checklist

Quick Rules for an APA Reference List

Your research paper ends with a list of all the sources cited in the text of the paper. Here are nine quick rules for this Reference list.

• Start a new page for your Reference list. Center and bold the title, References, at the top of the page.
• Double-space the list.
• Start the first line of each reference at the left margin; indent each subsequent line five spaces (a hanging indent).
• Put your list in alphabetical order. Alphabetize the list by the first word in the reference. In most cases, the first word will be the author’s last name. Where the author is unknown, alphabetize by the first word in the title, ignoring the words a, an, the.
• For each author, give the last name followed by a comma and the first (and middle, if listed) initials followed by periods.
• Italicize the titles of these works: books, audiovisual material, internet documents and newspapers, and the title and volume number of journals and magazines.
• Do not italicize titles of most parts of works, such as: articles from newspapers, magazines, or journals / essays, poems, short stories or chapter titles from a book / chapters or sections of an Internet document.
• In titles of non-periodicals (books, videotapes, websites, reports, poems, essays, chapters, etc), capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, and all proper nouns (names of people, places, organizations, nationalities).
• For a web source include the internet address in your citation, it can be a live hyperlink. 

Set Up Microsoft Word for Your APA 7 Paper

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How to Reference in Assignment: A Practical Guide

Table of Contents

A journey through different referencing styles

Apa (american psychological association), mla (modern language association), chicago (chicago manual of style), in-text citations vs. bibliographies: let’s understand the difference, in-text citations, bibliographies, how to write references in assignment, apa style examples, mla style examples, chicago style examples, how to cite an assignment with quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing, how to cite sources in the assignment: special cases, multiple authors, personal communications, secondary sources, referencing tools and software, avoiding plagiarism: the importance of accurate referencing, let’s make conclusions.

Referencing can be a difficult task, but do not worry! Our detailed guide will explain the steps to follow.

In academic writing, referencing is essential. It acknowledges the work of others and strengthens and clarifies your views. You must cite your sources properly to avoid plagiarism and show that you have read the pertinent literature. We will thoroughly explain how to cite sources in the assignment in this post, guaranteeing that you follow the rules of academic integrity. This article can be usefull for nursing assignments , nursing, economics etc.

There are numerous reference formats, each with its own set of rules and instructions for citing sources. The topic of study or the precise criteria of the assignment frequently influence the choice of referencing style. This overview looks at several of the most used citation formats for academic writing, including APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard.

The social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and education, frequently employ the APA style. It provides guidelines for structuring reference lists, in-text citations, and general document design. In-text citations in APA format for assignments include the author’s last name and the publication year (e.g., Smith, 2019).

The humanities, language studies, and other academic fields use MLA style often. It focuses on brief in-text citations and a thorough “Works Cited” page at the end of the paper. In-text citations in MLA format often include the page number and the author’s last name (e.g., Smith 45). Every source cited in the study is fully described on the “Works Cited” page.

Chicago style provides two citation formats: notes and bibliography and author-date. The notes and bibliography method employs a separate bibliography at the end. The author-date system uses in-text citations with the author’s last name and publication year (e.g., Smith 2019).

The social sciences, business, and other disciplines frequently choose the Harvard referencing style. It focuses on author-date citations, which include the author’s last name and the year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2019) within the text. A complete reference list with full publishing details for each mentioned source is provided at the end of the document.

These are only a few examples of referencing styles. There are many more, including IEEE (used in engineering and computer science) and Vancouver (present in the medical and scientific areas). These styles may vary or have requirements depending on the institution or professor. To guarantee accurate reference, it is essential to refer to the relevant style manual or any other instructions provided for your work.

By knowing the difference between in-text citations and bibliographies, you may successfully and correctly cite sources in text and improve the credibility of your writing. So, let’s start comparing!

To begin with, both of them serve the purpose of acknowledging the sources used — it’s their common feature. However, they differ in where they are located in the text and how much information is given.

Within the content of your assignment, in-text citations are brief references. They direct readers to the complete source material in your bibliography or reference list. They are used to credit information, concepts, or quotations to their sources.

Depending on the chosen citation style, in-text citations are frequently placed inside parentheses or as superscript numbers. They give major details, including the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number. For illustration, an in-text citation in APA style would appear as follows: (Author, year). In MLA style, it would be: (Author page number). In-text citations are placed immediately after the information or quote is referenced.

Writers can show that they participate in intellectual discussions by incorporating in-text citations. Also, It enables readers to check the integrity of the presented data.

On the other hand, reference lists or bibliographies are thorough lists of all the sources used in a project. Usually, authors add them at the end of the assignment. It gives readers all the information necessary to discover and access the sources. Each entry in the bibliography contains comprehensive information, including the author’s name, the book’s title, the year of publication, and some other information.

The bibliography for assignment must be arranged alphabetically by the author’s last name or, if none is given, by title. The bibliography’s format and presentation must adhere to its rules. No matter what citation style is used — APA, MLA, Chicago, or another.

Now, let’s look at clear referencing examples using popular citation styles and various source types.

In-text citation:

One author: (Smith, 2022);

Two authors: (Smith & Johnson, 2022);

Three or more authors: (Smith et al., 2022).

“Et al.” is an abbreviation derived from the Latin phrase “et alia,” which translates to “and others” in English. It is commonly used when citing sources with multiple authors.

Bibliographic reference:

Book: Smith, J. (2022). Title of Book. Publisher.

Journal article: Smith, J., & Johnson, A. (2022). Title of Article. Journal Name, volume(issue), page range.

Website: Smith, J. (2022). Title of Webpage. Retrieved from URL.

One author: (Smith 32); Two authors: (Smith and Johnson 45); Three or more authors: (Smith et al. 56)

Book: Smith, John. Title of Book. Publisher, year. Journal article: Smith, John, and Anne Johnson. “Title of Article.” Journal Name, vol. 10, no. 2, 2022, pp. 45-60. Website: Smith, John. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publisher/Website, URL.

One author: (Smith 2022); Two authors: (Smith and Johnson 2022); Three or more authors: (Smith et al. 2022).

Book: Smith, John. Title of Book. Publisher, year. Journal article: Smith, John, and Anne Johnson. “Title of Article.” Journal Name volume number (year): page range. Website: Smith, John. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).

When you include information from other sources in your assignments, it’s essential to quote, paraphrase, and summarize correctly. These methods allow you to use someone else’s ideas while giving them credit. Let’s explore each way and discover how to cite an assignment properly.

To cite correctly, provide a complete reference for each source in your bibliography or reference list. Follow the rules of the citation style you’re using (like APA, MLA, or Chicago) for books, articles, websites, etc.

Referencing sources is usually straightforward. However, some exceptional cases require additional attention.

When a source has multiple authors, include all the authors’ names in the reference. Use the word “and” before the last author’s name. For in-text citations, use the first author’s last name followed by “et al.”

For example, (Smith et al., 2022) or Smith et al. (2022).

If a source does not have an author, use the work’s title in the in-text citation and bibliography. Enclose the title in quotation marks or use italics if it is a longer work like a book or a journal.

For example, (“Title of the Article,” 2022) or Title of the Book (2022).

If a source does not have a publication date, use “n.d.” (which stands for “no date”) in both the in-text citation and the reference list.

For example, (Smith, n.d.) or Smith (n.d.).

If you want to reference interviews, emails, or conversations, provide the individual’s name and specify the type of communication. In the in-text citation, include the person’s name and the date of the contact.

For example, (J. Smith, personal communication, May 1, 2022).

Sometimes, you may need to cite a source you have not directly accessed but found through another author’s work. It is called citing a secondary source. In the in-text citation, include the original author’s name and the author of the work you have read, followed by “as cited in.” Provide the complete reference for the work you have read in the reference list.

For example, (Smith, as cited in Johnson, 2022) or Johnson (2022) cited Smith.

As you see, creating accurate references can be time-consuming and challenging. Thankfully, there are referencing tools and software available to simplify this task.

One such tool is the APA Citation Generator . It is designed specifically for APA style, allowing users to effortlessly generate citations for various sources. Input the necessary information, and the generator will create the citation in the correct format.

Similarly, the MLA Reference Generator is a valuable tool for generating citations in MLA style. It streamlines the process by providing a user-friendly interface to enter the required details, resulting in accurate and properly formatted citations.

These tools will save you time and reduce the chances of errors.

In academic writing, plagiarism is a severe infraction with adverse effects. Accurate reference is crucial to avoiding this unethical and intellectual disaster. You credit the original authors and demonstrate integrity by properly citing your sources.

Failure to do so may result in academic sanctions, reputational harm, and legal implications. Plagiarism weakens the standards of intellectual integrity and originality and diminishes the value of your work. You may promote academic integrity, honor the scholarly contributions of others, and protect your academic and professional future by adopting appropriate referencing procedures.

To sum up, mastering the art of referencing is a fundamental skill for every student and researcher. Throughout this practical guide, we have explored the critical referencing elements, including in-text citations, bibliographies, and reference lists. We have discussed the importance of accurately citing sources and avoiding plagiarism, ensuring academic integrity, and upholding the ethical standards of scholarship.

Embrace the habit of acknowledging your sources to give credit where it is due and strengthen the credibility and reliability of your assignments. As you continue your academic journey, make accurate referencing an integral part of your writing process. It will elevate the quality of your work and showcase your commitment to academic excellence. Happy referencing!

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Your school, college, or workplace may request a research proposal assignment, such as a management or business research proposal assignment, or an academic one. It may sound complex but is...

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547-National Consultant-Develop Methodical Recommendations on Case Management

Procurement process.

IC - Individual contractor

UNDP-UKR - UKRAINE

26-Aug-24 @ 07:00 AM (New York time)

Published on

07-Aug-24 @ 12:00 AM (New York time)

Reference Number

UNDP-UKR-00915

Procurement UA - [email protected]

Introduction

Country:  Ukraine

Description of the Assignment:  National Consultant on Development of Methodical Recommendations on Case Management for social work with Explosive Ordnance victims

Duty Station:  Home-based

Estimated Starting Date of the Assignment:  September 2024

Duration of the Assignment:  4 months from the contract start

!PLEASE NOTE: the currency of the proposal is UAH. Furthermore, UNDP will enter into a contract with the selected national consultant in UAH.

Main objectives of the assignment : to develop Methodical Recommendations on Case Management for social work with Explosive Ordnance victims

Scope of work :

It is expected that in terms of implementation of the assignment, the Consultant will conduct the following activities:

• Develop the manual (+/- 25-30 pages) for social workers on case management usage for EO victims and their families, as well as community social work in EO effected communities. Based on the Manual, develop the training materials for the 1-day training for social workers (including detailed training programme, test and presentation).  
• Develop draft Methodical Recommendations that should be adopted by the Order of the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine on implementation  and usage  of case management for EO victims and their families .

The Terms of Reference (TOR) for this assignment can be directly accessed either through the Quantum Negotiation or within the Negotiation Documents on the UNDP Procurement Notices website.  

HOW TO SUBMIT A BID/PROPOSAL:  

Proposal should be submitted directly in Quantum portal no later than indicated deadline following the link:  http://supplier.quantum.partneragencies.org  using the profile you may have in the portal. Do not create a new profile if you already have one. Use the forgotten password feature in case you do not remember the password or the username from previous registration. 

Any request for clarification not related to registration issues must be sent in writing via messaging functionality in Quantum. UNDP will respond in writing. 

Please indicate whether you intend to submit a proposal by creating a draft response without submitting directly in the system. This will enable the system to send notifications in case of amendments of the announcement requirements.

REGISTRATION IN QUANTUM:  

In case you have never registered before, you can register a profile using the registration link shared via this procurement notice and following the instructions in guides available in UNDP website:  https://www.undp.org/procurement/business/resources-for-bidders . 

Do not create a new profile if you already have one/registered before.  Use the forgotten password feature in case you do not remember the password or the username from previous registration . 

UKRAINIAN - Brief Guide for Supplier profile registration   Quantum Supplier registration brief manual UA v.4.pdf (undp.org)  (UA) 

UKRAINIAN - Guide for UNDP suppliers to use the Quantum portal  (registration, how to submit a proposal & other) :  PowerPoint Presentation (undp.org)  (UA) 

ENGLISH - Guide for UNDP suppliers to use the Quantum portal  (registration, how to submit a proposal & other):  PowerPoint Presentation (undp.org)  (EN) 

If you have any problems with registration in Quantum , please send a request for assistance to email  [email protected]  (please indicate in subject of email the reference number of Quantum negotiation and/or title of assignment).

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Generative AI tools for assignments

Using generative ai in your assignments, risks with using information from generative ai tools, acknowledge your use of chatgpt or other generative ai, citing generative ai, citing generative ai content for specific referencing styles, examples for different styles, chicago 17th, vancouver (american medical association), citing generative ai for publication, reusing content from this guide.

Attribute our work under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

Confirm with your course coordinator or check your course profile before using Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) in your assessment. Some assessment pieces do not permit the use of AI tools, while others may allow AI with some limitations. If you use AI in your assessment without permission or appropriate acknowledgment it may be considered Academic Misconduct .

Any permitted use of generative AI for assessment must be acknowledged appropriately. Your course coordinator will provide guidance on how to reference the use of AI tools. Some possible examples include:  

• citing or referencing in the text or list of references
• inclusion in your methodology
• an appendix including a full transcript of any prompts and AI-generated responses.

AI models sometimes produce incorrect, biased or outdated information. Verify the accuracy of AI-generated content using reliable sources before including it in your work.

Additionally, there may be legal or ethical issues to consider when using AI. Works created by non-humans are not eligible for copyright protection under Australian law. If you intend to publish work incorporating AI-generated content, check the publisher guidelines about what is allowed.

When interacting with AI models, you should be cautious about supplying sensitive information , including personal, confidential or propriety information or data.

If you use generative AI to help you  generate ideas or plan your process , you should still  acknowledge how you used the tool , even if you don’t include any AI-generated content in the assignment.

You should include the following information when referencing generative AI content:

• generative AI system (e.g. Copilot, Chat-GPT, Claude, Google AI etc.)
• company (e.g. OpenAI URL of the AI system)
• the web address of the system
• a brief description of how you used the tool (e.g. edited/corrected/translated/planned/brainstormed)
• date. 

This work was corrected using Copilot (Microsoft, https://copilot.microsoft.com/) on 30 July 2024.  

Tip: Save a copy of the transcript of your questions and responses from the generative AI tool. 

• Take a screenshot
• Right click and select  Save as  to save the webpage file.

Source:  Acknowledging the use of AI and referencing AI 2023 by University College London

Where an assignment requires the use of generative AI tools to be cited, you must reference all the content from Generative AI tools that you include. Failure to reference externally sourced, non-original work can result in Academic misconduct .

References should provide clear and accurate information for each source and should identify where they have been used in your work.

Content from generative AI is a nonrecoverable source as it can't be retrieved or linked.

• Check the referencing style used in your course for specific guidelines for how to cite generative AI content.
• If there are no specific guidelines, we recommend that you base it on the reference style for personal communication or correspondence .

The following sections have examples of how to cite generative AI for different styles.

Based on APA Style guidance.

Author of generative AI model, Year of version used

(OpenAI, 2022)

OpenAI (2022)

Reference list

Author of AI model used. (Year of AI model used). Name of AI model used (Version of AI model used) [Type or description of AI model used]. Web address of AI model used

OpenAI. (2022). ChatGPT (Dec 20 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/

The full transcript of a response can be included in an appendix or other supplementary materials.

Visit How to cite ChatGPT for more information.

Interim advice and guidance

Essentially use rule 7.12 that covers  written correspondence. This is included in the bibliography (rule 1.13). Include the name of the creator and recipient first.

OpenAI, ChatGPT to Fred Jones, Output, 24 February 2023.

Number  Output from [program], [creator] to [recipient], [full date].

1 Output from ChatGPT, OpenAI to Fred Jones, 24 February 2023. 

Text explaining the prompt that was used can be included in the footnote. The full detail can also be included in an appendix.

1  Output from ChatGPT, OpenAI to Fred Jones, 24 February 2023. The output was generated in response to the prompt, ‘What is the history of the Law School at The University of Queensland’: see below Appendix C.

The Chicago Manual of Style Online provides guidance on citing and documenting sources derived from generative artificial intelligence .

When using an author-date style, you should include the author of the generative AI model and date in parentheses unless it is mentioned in-text e.g. (Microsoft Copilot, 30 July 2024).

Author, response to [prompt], Publisher, Day Month Year.

1.   ChatGPT, response to "Describe the symbolism of the green light in the book  The Great Gatsby  by F. Scott Fitzgerald,” OpenAI, 7 February 2023.

2. Text generated from ChatGPT, OpenAI, 7 February 2023.

If you have included your prompt in-text there is no need to repeat it in the note.

Guidance based on How do I cite generative AI in MLA style? from the official style website.

In-text citation

(Short form Title of source) 

(“Describe the symbolism”) 

“Title of source” prompt. Name of AI Tool , version, Company, Date content was generated, General web address of tool. 

“Describe the symbolism of the green light in the book The Great Gatsby  by F. Scott Fitzgerald” prompt. ChatGPT , 13 Feb. version, OpenAI, 8 Mar. 2023, chat.openai.com/chat. 

The text of your document must include:

• Type of communication
• Communicator
• Date in this format (Day Month Year)

In an online chat with OpenAI's ChatGPT AI language model (7 February 2023) ...

Generative AI tools can be cited in the text of your work by specifying:

• the name of the tool
• any details of the version that are available
• the manufacturer, e.g. OpenAI, Google etc.
• the date you used the tool can be helpful information as well

On August 5, 2024 the pre-determined questions were entered into ChatGPT (GPT-4-turbo, OpenAI) and the responses recorded for analysis.

In an online chat with Microsoft's Copilot AI language model (February 7, 2023) ...

Different publishers are taking different approaches to whether generative AI is allowed.

If you are writing for publication, you should check the publisher's information for authors.

• Last Updated: Aug 5, 2024 4:04 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.uq.edu.au/referencing/generative-ai-tools-assignments

Paris 2024: Men’s 200m preview, full schedule and how to watch live

Picture by 2024 Getty Images

Noah Lyles has been the undisputed 200m king over the last three years. But can the US superstar translate his half-lap dominance into Paris 2024 Olympics gold?

Lyles knows full well that form and global titles do not necessarily translate into success at the quadrennial showpiece. The Olympics is after all the greatest stage of all and challengers are a dime a dozen.

Heading into Tokyo 2020 in 2021, Lyles was tipped as the favourite to add the Olympic crown to his 2019 world title. He had to instead settle for bronze, finishing third behind Canadian champion Andre de Grasse and compatriot Kenny Bednarek .

Still, Lyles has every reason to feel bullish about his chances of finally adding Olympic gold to his collection of three consecutive 200m world titles.

Lyles boasts a 17-race winning streak at major international events going back to the Prefontaine Classic at Eugene, Oregon in August 2021, shortly after his third-place finish in Tokyo.

The 27-year-old Lyles will be looking to tap into his form from 2022 when he broke Michael Johnson 's US record from Atlanta 1996 with a time of 19.31s win his second 200m world title in Oregon. That time ranks him third on the world all-time list, behind Jamaica's Usain Bolt and Yohan Blake .

Lyles’ plans to become the first American to win the Olympic 200m title since Shawn Crawford in Athens 2004 will not go unchallenged. He will face an onslaught both from compatriots and international stars.

Chief among the challengers is Bednarek, who will be looking to upgrade his silver from Tokyo to gold. Bednarek finished just 0.06 behind Lyles at the US Olympic trials this year with a personal best time of 19.59s. He is the second-fastest man behind Lyles – with his world lead of 19.53s – this season.

The other threat from within will come from the 20-year-old Erriyon Knighton , who narrowly missed out on the medals in Tokyo with fourth place. Knighton has inched close to the top of the podium since Tokyo, finishing third and second at the 2022 and 2023 world championships respectively.

Rising star Letsile Tebogo of Botswana has emerged as a serious threat to the US hegemony after his bronze-medal run in Hungary where he added to his silver from the 100m. Tebogo clocked a blistering PB of 19.50s in the buildup to the 2023 world champs which ranks him as the sixth fastest half-lap sprinter ever.

Finally, there is defending champion de Grasse, who has distinguished himself as a man for the big moment. De Grasse has not made it close to the podium at major championships since Tokyo and will go into Paris with only one sub-20-second race behind his name.

But one would be silly to discount de Grasse as he looks to add more silverware to his trophy case of six Olympic medals – one gold, two silver and three bronzes.

• Olympics Athletics schedule at Paris 2024
• Paris 2024 Medal table

The full men’s 200m schedule at the Paris 2024 Olympics

The men’s 200m starts on the fifth day of the track and field programme at Paris 2024 on Monday 5 August before the repechage round on (6 August) and the semi-finals on 7 August.

The repechage rounds will offer competitors in the 200m through 1,500m races a second shot at the semi-finals if they don't qualify in their opening heat.

The finals are scheduled for Thursday (8 August).

All times local to Paris.

Monday 6, August 19:55 – Men’s 200m preliminary round

Tuesday, 6 August 12:30 – Men’s 200m repechage

Wednesday, 7 August 20:45 – Men’s 200m semi-final

Thursday, 8 August 20:30 – Men’s 200m final

How to watch the men’s 200m live at Paris 2024

All of the men’s 200m action from the preliminary rounds through to the final race at Paris 2024 can be watched via media rights holders (MRHs ).

Check out the listings for your local broadcaster here .

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Why should the assignment operator return a reference to the object?

I'm doing some revision of my C++, and I'm dealing with operator overloading at the minute, specifically the "="(assignment) operator. I was looking online and came across multiple topics discussing it. In my own notes, I have all my examples taken down as something like

In all the references I found online, I noticed that the operator returns a reference to the source object. Why is the correct way to return a reference to the object as opposed to the nothing at all?

• operator-overloading
• return-type
• assignment-operator

• The correct way is whatever way implements the semantics you want; the idiomatic way is certainly to return T& ( Foo& in your example). –  ildjarn Commented Jan 30, 2012 at 23:08
• @MooingDuck, I guess I phrased the question wrong. I was going on the assumption that my notes were wrong, but wanted to know why more than which was correct. –  maccard Commented Jan 30, 2012 at 23:12
• 1 possible duplicate of assignment operator return a reference to *this in C++ ; also Returning *this with an assignment operator –  Rob Kennedy Commented Jan 30, 2012 at 23:26

4 Answers 4

The usual form returns a reference to the target object to allow assignment chaining. Otherwise, it wouldn't be possible to do:

Still, keep in mind that getting right the assigment operator is tougher than it might seem .

• 1 Never knew about the Copy and Swap part. I've always just checked for self assignment, assigned values, and returned void, I guess there's more to this than I was expecting. Accepting your answer for pointing out the Copy&Swap Thanks for the response. –  maccard Commented Jan 30, 2012 at 23:20

The return type doesn't matter when you're just performing a single assignment in a statement like this:

It starts to matter when you do this:

... and really matters when you do this:

That's why you return the current object: to allow chaining assignments with the correct associativity. It's a good general practice.

• 1 I don't understand why you say "it starts to matter". Either it matters or it doesn't. Can you please elaborate? –  balajeerc Commented Jun 20, 2015 at 6:15
• 3 @balajeerc: "It starts to matter" in English is read to mean "it matters in the latter situation but not the former". In other words, "when changing from situation A to B, importance ('mattering') goes from zero to nonzero". In straight assignment the return does not matter. Inside a conditional it matters if the thing you return is true or false, but not exactly which object it is. In the chained assignments case, you really want the return to be the current object because the results would be counterintuitive otherwise. –  Borealid Commented Jun 23, 2015 at 19:42

Your assignment operator should always do these three things:

Take a const-reference input (const MyClass &rhs) as the right hand side of the assignment. The reason for this should be obvious, since we don't want to accidentally change that value; we only want to change what's on the left hand side.

Always return a reference to the newly altered left hand side, return *this . This is to allow operator chaining, e.g. a = b = c; .

Always check for self assignment (this == &rhs) . This is especially important when your class does its own memory allocation.

• 2 Checking for self-assignment is a naive solution, the correct one is copy-and-swap. –  Matteo Italia Commented Jan 30, 2012 at 23:18
• Thanks for the response, but I was only trying to make a simple example by leaving out the self assignment check. I understood everything bar the returning a reference. –  maccard Commented Jan 30, 2012 at 23:23
• 1 @MatteoItalia Copy-and-swap can be expensive. For example, assignment of one large vector to another cannot reuse the target's memory if copy-and-swap is used. –  Sebastian Redl Commented Apr 1, 2016 at 10:04
• Check out the reference given in the accepted answer. It tells you why passing rhs by value may be a perfectly valid option. In Copy assignment operator - cppreference.com , both options of non-trivial implementations are distinguished (your answer reflects only the second one). This unfortunately makes your seemingly simple recipe a bit misleading. –  Wolf Commented Aug 29, 2022 at 9:13

When you overload an operator and use it, what really happens at compilation is this:

So you can see that the object b of type FOO is passed by value as argument to the object a's assignment function of the same type. Now consider this, what if you wanted to cascade assignment and do something like this:

It would be efficient to pass the objects by reference as argument to the function call because we know that NOT doing that we pass by value which makes a copy inside a function of the object which takes time and space.

The statement 'b.operator=(c)' will execute first in this statement and it will return a reference to the object had we overloaded the operator to return a reference to the current object:

Now our statement:

Where 'this' is the reference to the object that was returned after the execution of 'b.operator=(c)'. Object's reference is being passed here as the argument and the compiler doesn't have to create a copy of the object that was returned.

Had we not made the function to return Foo object or its reference and had made it return void instead:

The statement would've become something like:

And this would've thrown compilation error.

TL;DR You return the object or the reference to the object to cascade(chain) assignment which is:

• If the assignment operator returns by value, calling assginment function will invoke copy constructor which will consume more time and space. What I want to ask is, will there be some other side effects, or time and space is the only side effect of returning by value other than returning by reference? –  Lake_Lagunita Commented Jan 29, 2023 at 1:44

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