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How to Write a Perfect Essay On/About War (A Complete Guide)

War is painful. It causes mass death and the destruction of infrastructure on an unimaginable scale. Unfortunately, as humans, we have not yet been able to prevent wars and conflicts from happening. Nevertheless, we are studying them to understand them and their causes better.

In this post, we will look at how to write a war essay. The information we will share here will help anyone craft a brilliant war essay, whatever their level of education.

Let’s commence.

What Is a War Essay?

A war essay is an essay on an armed conflict involving two states or one state and an armed group. You will be asked to write a war essay at some point if you are taking a history course, diplomacy course, international relations course, war studies course, or conflict management course.

When asked to write about a war, it is important to consider several things. These include the belligerents, the location of the conflict, the leading cause or causes of the conflict, the course of the event so far, and the possible solutions to the conflict.

The sections below will help you discover everything you need to know about how to write war essays.

An essay about war can take many forms, including:

• Expository essay – where you explore the timeline of the wars (conflicts), losses/consequences, significant battles, and notable dates.
• Argumentative essay . A war essay that debates an aspect of a certain war.
• Cause and Effect essay examines the events leading to war and its aftermath.
• Compare and contrast a war essay that pits one war or an aspect of the war against an
• Document-based question (DBQ) that analyzes the historical war documentation to answer a prompt.
• Creative writing pieces where you narrate or describe an experience of or with war.
• A persuasive essay where use ethos, pathos, and logos (rhetorical appeals) to convince your readers to adopt your points.

The Perfect Structure/Organization for a War Essay

To write a good essay about war, you must understand the war essay structure. The war essay structure is the typical 3-section essay structure. It starts with an introduction section, followed by a body section, and then a conclusion section. Find out what you need to include in each section below:

1. Introduction

In the introduction paragraph , you must introduce the reader to the war or conflict you are discussing. But before you do so, you need to hook the reader to your work. You can only do this by starting your introduction with an attention-grabbing statement . This can be a fact about the war, a quote, or a statistic.

Once you have grabbed the reader's attention, you should introduce the reader to the conflict your essay is focused on. You should do this by providing them with a brief background on the conflict.

Your thesis statement should follow the background information. This is the main argument your essay will be defending.

The introduction section of a war essay is typically one paragraph long. But it can be two paragraphs long for long war essays.

In the body section of your war essay, you need to provide information to support your thesis statement. A typical body section of a college essay will include three to four body paragraphs. Each body paragraph starts with a topic sentence and solely focuses on it. This is how your war essay should be.

Once you develop a thesis statement, you should think of the points you will use to defend it and then list them in terms of strength. The strongest of these points should be your topic sentences.

When developing the body section of your war essay, make sure your paragraphs flow nicely. This will make your essay coherent. One of the best ways to make your paragraphs flow is to use transition words, phrases, and sentences.

The body section of a war essay is typically three to four paragraphs long, but it can be much longer.

3. Conclusion

In the conclusion section of your war essay, you must wrap up everything nicely. The recommended way to do this is to restate your thesis statement to remind the reader what your essay was about. You should follow this by restating the main points supporting your thesis statement.

Your thesis and the restatement of your main points should remind your reader of what your essay was all about. You should then end your essay with a food-for-thought, a recommendation, or a solution. Whatever you use to end your essay, make sure it is relevant to what you have just covered in your essay, and it shows that you have widely read on the topic.

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How to write a war Essay? – The Steps

Several wars have taken place on earth, including:

• World War I and II
• Russian Civil War
• Chinese Civil War
• Lebanese Civil War
• Syrian Civil War
• The Spanish Civil War
• The American Civil War
• Afghanistan War

The list of wars that have happened to date is endless.

Writing a war essay is never easy. You need to plan your work meticulously to develop a brilliant war essay. If you are assigned to write a war essay or paper, follow the steps below to develop a brilliant essay on any conflict.

1. Read The Assignment Instructions Carefully

You must know precisely what to do to write a brilliant war essay. College professors typically provide multiple instructions when they ask students to write college essays. Students must then read the instructions carefully to write precisely what their professors want to see.

Therefore, when you get a war essay assignment, you must read the instructions carefully to understand what is needed of you entirely. Know exactly what conflict your professor wants you to focus on, what aspect of the conflict (the origin, the chronology of events leading to the war, external factors, etc.), what sources they want you to use, and the number of pages they want.

Knowing what your professor needs will help you to develop it nicely.

2. Do Your Research

After reviewing the war assignment instructions, you should research the topic you’ve been asked to focus on. Do this by Googling the topic (and its variations), searching it in your college database, and searching it in scholarly databases. As you read more on the topic, take a lot of notes. This will help you to understand the topic better, plus its nuances.

Once you understand the topic well, you should start to think about what precisely your essay should focus on. If you like, this will be the foundation of your essay or the thesis statement.

Once you settle on the thesis statement, read more on the topic but focus on information that will help you defend your thesis statement.

3. Craft A Thesis Statement and Create an Outline

At this point, you should have a rough thesis statement . Once you have read more information on it as per the previous step, you should be able to refine it into a solid and argumentative statement at this point.

So refine your thesis statement to make it perfect. Your thesis statement can be one or two sentences long but never more. Once you have created it, you should create an outline.

An outline is like a treasure map – it details where you must go comprehensively. Creating an outline will give you an overview of what your essay will look like and whether it will defend your thesis statement. It will also make it easier for you to develop your essay.

Ensure your outline includes a striking title for your conflict essay, the topic sentence for each body paragraph, and the supporting evidence for each topic sentence.

Related Read:

• Writing a compelling claim in an essay
• How to write sound arguments and counterarguments

4. Start Writing the Introduction

When you finish writing your essay, you should start writing the introduction. This is where the rubber meets the road –the actual writing of your war essay begins.

Since you have already created a thesis statement and an outline, you should not find it challenging to write your introduction. Follow your outline to develop a friendly compact, and informative introduction to the conflict your essay will focus on.

Read your introduction twice to make sure it is as compact and as informative as it can be. It should also be straightforward to understand.

5. Write The Rest of Your Essay

Once you have created the introduction to your war essay, you should create the body section. The body section of your essay should follow your outline. Remember the outline you created in step 3 has the points you should focus on in each body paragraph. So follow it to make developing your essay’s body section easy.

As you develop your essay's body section, ensure you do everything nicely. By this, we mean you develop each topic sentence entirely using the sandwich paragraph writing method.

Also, make sure there is a nice flow between your sentences and between your paragraphs.

6. Conclude Your War Essay

After writing the rest of your essay, you should offer a robust conclusion. Your conclusion should also follow your outline. As usual, it should start with a thesis restatement and a restatement of all your main points.

It should then be followed by a concluding statement that provides the reader with food for thought. You should never include new information in your conclusion paragraph. This will make it feel like another body paragraph, yet the purpose of your conclusion should be to give your reader the feeling that your essay is ending or done.

7. Proofread and Edit Your Essay

This is the last step of writing a war essay or any other one. This step is final, but it is perhaps the most important step. This is because it distinguishes an ordinary essay from an extraordinary one.

You should proofread your essay at least thrice, especially if it is short. When you do it the first time, you should look for grammar errors and other basic mistakes. Eliminate all the errors and mistakes you find. When you do it the second time, you should do it to ensure the flow of your essay is perfect.

And when you do it the third and last time, you should use editing software like Grammarly.com to catch all the errors you might have missed.

When you proofread your war essay in this manner, you should be able to transform it from average to excellent. After completing this step, your war essay will be ready for submission.

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Tips for Writing a Brilliant War Essay

Follow the tips below to develop a brilliant essay.

• A brilliant topic is always vital.

When you are assigned a war essay, you should do your best to choose or create a brilliant topic for your essay. A boring topic focusing on something discussed and debated a million times will never be brilliant.

• A strong thesis statement is essential.

Along with a brilliant topic, you need a strong thesis statement to make your war essay brilliant. This is because a strong thesis statement is like a lighthouse – it will guide safely to the harbor (conclusion).

• Do not be afraid to discuss the tragedy.

Sometimes war details can feel too graphic or gruesome, leading to hesitance on the part of students when they are writing articles. Do not hesitate or be afraid to discuss tragedy if discussing tragedy will add to the substance of your essay.

• Be impartial.

Sometimes it can be challenging to write an impartial essay, especially if you relate to or strongly support one side in a conflict. Well, this should never happen. As a researcher, you must be as impartial as you can be. You must inform your reader of all the facts available to you without bias so they have an accurate impression of whatever you are talking about.

• Ensure your work has flow.

This is one of the most important things you must do when writing a war essay. Since war essays sometimes discuss disparate issues, ending with a disjointed essay is straightforward. You should do all you can to ensure your workflows are well, including using transition words generously. 

• Proofread your work.

You should always proofread your essays before submission. This is what will always upgrade them from ordinary to extraordinary. If you don’t proofread your work, you will submit subpar work that will not get you a good grade.

• Explore unexplored angles.

Chances are, whatever war or conflict you write about has already been written on or reported on a million times. If you want your essay to be interesting, you should explore unexplored angles on conflicts. This will make your work very interesting.

War Essay Sample to Inspire your Writing

Here is a short sample of a war essay on the Russia-Ukraine War.

The most affected cities in the Russia-Ukraine War 2022

The Russia-Ukraine war has killed tens of thousands and displaced millions across Ukraine. It has also led to the destruction of civilian homes and infrastructure across Ukraine. The eastern cities of Bakhmut, Kharkiv, and Mariupol are the most affected cities in the Russia-Ukraine War 2022.

Bakhmut in southeastern Ukraine is the site of the bloodiest and longest-running battle between Russian and Ukrainian forces. The city is strategic as it is close to supply routes that the Russians use in the occupied territories of southern Ukraine. It is estimated that as much as 90% of Bakhmut has been destroyed in Russia’s bid to take over the city.

Mariupol is a Ukrainian port city between Russia and the Russian-occupied Crimea. Russia decided to take the city early on to deny Ukraine a foothold close to its border and operation areas in the south. Yet the city was defended by a fanatic Ukrainian military battalion that swore not to give it up. This led to Russia bombing much of the city to the ground. In the end, Russia won the battle for Mariupol and now controls the city and the surrounding area.

Kharkiv is Ukraine’s second biggest city. It is less than 45 minutes away from the Russian border. Taking the city was one of the top priorities for Russia at the start of the war because of its proximity to Russia. Nevertheless, Ukraine deployed much of its army to defend the city and has managed to do so. Nevertheless, this has come at a cost. Much of Kharkiv’s infrastructure is destroyed. Its power lines, highways, roads, railways, dams, and industries are destroyed.

The Russia-Ukraine conflict has affected much of Ukraine, especially the eastern cities of Bakhmut, Kharkiv, and Mariupol. All three cities have suffered tremendous infrastructure damage in the past few months. Efforts must be made by the two state parties and the international community to prevent further destruction of Ukrainian cities in this conflict.

War Essay Topic Ideas

Not sure what to write about in your war essay? Here are some ideas to get your creative juices flowing.

• Causes of Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022
• What led to Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014?
• Causes of Tigray conflict in Ethiopia
• Somalia-Kenya border conflict
• Conflict in eastern DRC
• Secessionist movements in the UK
• Western Sahara versus Morocco
• Causes of the Libyan Civil War
• The American war of independence
• The American civil war
• The English civil war
• The Napoleonic wars
• The French invasion of Russia
• Causes of the crusader wars
• The German invasion of Poland and its consequences
• The battle of Stalingrad and its bearing on the cause of WWII
• The causes of World War I
• The Japanese invasion of Southeast Asia
• What caused America to end the Vietnam War
• The Cuban Missile Crisis
• The fall of the Berlin Wall
• The Arms Race
• Role of the cold world war in shaping the world we live today
• The causes and consequences of the Syrian Civil War
• The role of propaganda in the Iraq War
• Implications of the Syrian Civil War

As you Come to the End, …

An essay on war is not easy to write, but it can be written when you have the right information. This post provides you with all the vital information needed to write a brilliant war essay. We hope that this info makes it easy for you to write your war essay.

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How to Write War Essay: Russia Ukraine War

Understanding the Purpose and Scope of a War Essay

A condition of armed conflict between nations or between groups living in one nation is known as war. Sounds not like much fun, does it? Well, conflicts have been a part of human history for thousands of years, and as industry and technology have developed, they have grown more devastating. As awful as it might seem, a war typically occurs between a country or group of countries against a rival country to attain a goal through force. Civil and revolutionary wars are examples of internal conflicts that can occur inside a nation.

Your history class could ask you to write a war essay, or you might be personally interested in learning more about conflicts, in which case you might want to learn how to write an academic essay about war. In any scenario, we have gathered valuable guidance on how to organize war essays. Let's first examine the potential reasons for a conflict before moving on to the outline for a war essay.

• Economic Gain - A country's desire to seize control of another country's resources frequently starts conflicts. Even when the proclaimed goal of a war is portrayed to the public as something more admirable, most wars have an economic motivation at their core, regardless of any other possible causes.
• Territorial Gain - A nation may determine that it requires additional land for habitation, agriculture, or other uses. Additionally, the territory might serve as buffer zones between two violent foes.
• Religion - Religious disputes can stem from extremely profound issues. They may go dormant for many years before suddenly resurfacing later.
• Nationalism - In this sense, nationalism simply refers to the act of violently subjugating another country to demonstrate the country's superiority. This frequently manifests as an invasion.
• Revenge - Warfare can frequently be motivated by the desire to punish, make up for, or simply exact revenge for perceived wrongdoing. Revenge has a connection to nationalism as well because when a nation has been wronged, its citizens are inspired by patriotism and zeal to take action.
• Defensive War - In today's world, when military aggression is being questioned, governments will frequently claim that they are fighting in a solely protective manner against a rival or prospective aggressor and that their conflict is thus a 'just' conflict. These defensive conflicts may be especially contentious when conducted proactively, with the basic premise being that we are striking them before they strike us.

How to Write War Essay with a War Essay Outline

Just like in compare and contrast examples and any other forms of writing, an outline for a war essay assists you in organizing your research and creating a good flow. In general, you keep to the traditional three-part essay style, but you can adapt it as needed based on the length and criteria of your school. When planning your war paper, consider the following outline:

Introduction

• Definition of war
• Importance of studying wars
• Thesis statement

Body Paragraphs

• Causes of the War
• Political reasons
• Economic reasons
• Social reasons
• Historical reasons
• Major Players in the War
• Countries and their leaders
• Military leaders
• Allies and enemies
• Strategies and Tactics
• Military tactics and techniques
• Strategic planning
• Weapons and technology
• Impact of the War
• On the countries involved
• On civilians and non-combatants
• On the world as a whole
• Summary of the main points
• Final thoughts on the war
• Suggestions for future research

If you found this outline template helpful, you can also use our physics help for further perfecting your academic assignments.

Begin With a Relevant Hook

A hook should be the focal point of the entire essay. A good hook for an essay on war can be an interesting statement, an emotional appeal, a thoughtful question, or a surprising fact or figure. It engages your audience and leaves them hungry for more information.

Follow Your Outline

An outline is the single most important organizational tool for essay writing. It allows the writer to visualize the overall structure of the essay and focus on the flow of information. The specifics of your outline depend on the type of essay you are writing. For example, some should focus on statistics and pure numbers, while others should dedicate more space to abstract arguments.

How to Discuss Tragedy, Loss, and Sentiment

War essays are particularly difficult to write because of the terrible nature of war. The life is destroyed, the loved ones lost, fighting, death, great many massacres and violence overwhelm, and hatred for the evil enemy, amongst other tragedies, make emotions run hot, which is why sensitivity is so important. Depending on the essay's purpose, there are different ways to deal with tragedy and sentiment.

The easiest one is to stick with objective data rather than deal with the personal experiences of those who may have been affected by these events. It can be hard to remain impartial, especially when writing about recent deaths and destruction. But it is your duty as a researcher to do so.

However, it’s not always possible to avoid these issues entirely. When you are forced to tackle them head-on, you should always be considerate and avoid passing swift and sweeping judgment.

Summing Up Your Writing

When you have finished presenting your case, you should finish it off with some sort of lesson it teaches us. Armed conflict is a major part of human nature yet. By analyzing the events that transpired, you should be able to make a compelling argument about the scale of the damage the war caused, as well as how to prevent it in the future.

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Popular War Essay Topics

When choosing a topic for an essay about war, it is best to begin with the most well-known conflicts because they are thoroughly recorded. These can include the Cold War or World War II. You might also choose current wars, such as the Syrian Civil War or the Russia and Ukraine war. Because they occur in the backdrop of your time and place, such occurrences may be simpler to grasp and research.

To help you decide which war to write about, we have compiled some facts about several conflicts that will help you get off to a strong start.

Russia Ukraine War

Russian President Vladimir Putin started the Russian invasion in the early hours of February 24 last year. According to him. the Ukrainian government had been committing genocide against Russian-speaking residents in the eastern Ukraine - Donbas region since 2014, calling the onslaught a 'special military operation.'

The Russian president further connected the assault to the NATO transatlantic military alliance commanded by the United States. He said the Russian military was determined to stop NATO from moving farther east and establishing a military presence in Ukraine, a part of the Soviet Union, until its fall in 1991.

All of Russia's justifications have been rejected by Ukraine and its ally Western Countries. Russia asserted its measures were defensive, while Ukraine declared an emergency and enacted martial law. According to the Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy, the administration's objective is not only to repel offensives but also to reclaim all Ukrainian land that the Russian Federation has taken, including Crimea.

Both sides of the conflict accuse the other of deploying indiscriminate force, which has resulted in many civilian deaths and displacements. According to current Ukraine news, due to the difficulty of counting the deceased due to ongoing combat, the death toll is likely far higher. In addition, countless Ukrainian refugees were compelled to leave their homeland in search of safety and stability abroad.

Diplomatic talks have been employed to try to end the Ukraine-Russia war. Several rounds of conversations have taken place in various places. However, the conflict is still raging as of April 2023, and there is no sign of a truce.

World War II

World War II raged from 1939 until 1945. Most of the world's superpowers took part in the conflict, fought between two military alliances headed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, and the Axis Powers, led by Germany, Italy, and Japan.

If you'd like to explore it more in-depth, consider using our history essay service for a World War 2 essay pdf sample!

After World War II, a persistent political conflict between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies became known as the Cold War. It's hard to say who was to blame for the cold war essay. American citizens have long harbored concerns about Soviet communism and expressed alarm over Joseph Stalin's brutal control of his own nation. On their side, the Soviets were angry at the Americans for delaying their participation in World War II, which led to the deaths of tens of millions of Russians, and for America's long-standing unwillingness to recognize the USSR as a genuine member of the world community.

Vietnam War

If you're thinking about writing the Vietnam War essay, you should know that it was a protracted military battle that lasted in Vietnam from 1955 to 1975. The North Vietnamese communist government fought South Vietnam and its main ally, the United States, in the lengthy, expensive, and contentious Vietnam War. The ongoing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union exacerbated the issue. The Vietnam War claimed the lives of more than 3 million individuals, more than half of whom were Vietnamese civilians.

American Civil War

Consider writing an American Civil War essay where the Confederate States of America, a grouping of eleven southern states that seceded from the Union in 1860 and 1861, and the United States of America battled each other. If you're wondering what caused the civil war, you should know that the long-standing dispute about the legitimacy of slavery is largely responsible for how the war started.

The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

After over a century, the Israel-Palestine conflict has evolved into one of the most significant and current problems in the Middle East. A war that has claimed the lives of tens of thousands of people destroyed their homes and gave rise to terrorist organizations that still hold the region hostage. Simply described, it is a conflict between two groups of people for ownership of the same piece of land. One already resided there, while the other was compelled to immigrate to this country owing to rising antisemitism and later settled there. For Israelis and Palestinians alike, as well as for the larger area, the war continues to have substantial political, social, and economic repercussions.

The Syrian Civil War

Pro-democracy protests broke out in southern Deraa in March 2011 due to upheavals against oppressive leaders in neighboring nations. When the Syrian government employed lethal force to quell the unrest, widespread protests calling for the president's resignation broke out.

The country entered a civil war as the violence quickly increased. After hundreds of rebel organizations emerged, the fight quickly expanded beyond a confrontation between Syrians supporting or opposing Mr. Assad. Everyone believes a political solution is necessary, even though it doesn't seem like it will soon.

Russia-Ukraine War Essay Sample

With the Russian-Ukrainian war essay sample provided below from our paper writing experts, you can gain more insight into structuring a flawless paper.

Why is there a war between Russia and Ukraine?

Final Words

To understand our past and the present, we must study conflicts since they are a product of human nature and civilization. Our graduate essay writing service can produce any kind of essay you want, whether it is about World War II, the Cold War, or another conflict. Send us your specifications with your ' write my essay ' request, and let our skilled writers help you wow your professor!

Having Hard Time Writing on Wars?

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Essays About War: Top 5 Examples and 5 Prompts

War is atrocious and there is an almost universal rule that we should be prevented; if you are writing essays about war, read our helpful guide.

Throughout history, war has driven human progress. It has led to the dissolution of oppressive regimes and the founding of new democratic countries. There is no doubt that the world would not be as it is without the many wars waged in the past.

War is waged to achieve a nation or organization’s goals, but what is the actual cost of progress? War has taken, and continues to take, countless lives. It is and is very costly in terms of resources as well. From the American Revolution to World Wars I and II to the Crusades and Hundred Years’ War of antiquity, wars throughout history have been bloody, brutal, and disastrous. 

If you are writing essays about war, look at our top essay examples below.

1. War Is Not Part of Human Nature by R. Brian Ferguson

2. essay on war and peace (author unknown), 3. the impacts of war on global health by sarah moore.

• 4.  The Psychosocial Impacts of War and Armed Conflict on Children by Iman Farajallah, Omar Reda, H. Steven Moffic, John R. Peteet, and Ahmed Hankir

5. ​​Is war a pre-requisite for peace? by Anna Cleary

5 prompts for essays about war, 1. is war justified, 2. why do countries go to war, 3. the effects of war, 4. moral and ethical issues concerning war, 5. reflecting on a historical war.

“Debate over war and human nature will not soon be resolved. The idea that intensive, high-casualty violence was ubiquitous throughout prehistory has many backers. It has cultural resonance for those who are sure that we as a species naturally tilt toward war. As my mother would say: “Just look at history!” But doves have the upper hand when all the evidence is considered. Broadly, early finds provide little if any evidence suggesting war was a fact of life.”

Ferguson disputes the popular belief that war is inherent to human nature, as evidenced by archaeological discoveries. Many archaeologists use the very same evidence to support the opposing view. Evidence reveals many instances where war was waged, but not fought. In the minds of Ferguson and many others, humanity may be predisposed to conflict and violence, but not war, as many believe. 

“It also appears that if peace were to continue for a long period, people would become sick of the monotony of life and would seek war for a changed man is a highly dynamic creature and it seems that he cannot remain contented merely with works of peace-the cultivation of arts, the development of material comforts, the extension of knowledge, the means and appliances of a happy life.”

This essay provides an interesting perspective on war; other than the typical motivations for war, such as the desire to achieve one’s goals; the author writes that war disrupts the monotony of peace and gives participants a sense of excitement and uncertainty. In addition, it instills the spirit of heroism and bravery in people. However, the author does not dispute that war is evil and should be avoided as much as possible. 

“War forces people to flee their homes in search of safety, with the latest figures from the UN estimating that around 70 million people are currently displaced due to war. This displacement can be incredibly detrimental to health, with no safe and consistent place to sleep, wash, and shelter from the elements. It also removes a regular source of food and proper nutrition. As well as impacting physical health, war adversely affects the mental health of both those actively involved in conflict and civilians.”

Moore discusses the side effects that war has on civilians. For example, it diverts resources used on poverty alleviation and infrastructure towards fighting. It also displaces civilians when their homes are destroyed, reduces access to food, water, and sanitation, and can significantly impact mental health, among many other effects. 

4.   The Psychosocial Impacts of War and Armed Conflict on Children by Iman Farajallah, Omar Reda, H. Steven Moffic, John R. Peteet, and Ahmed Hankir

“The damage done by war-related trauma can never be undone. We can, however, help reduce its long-term impacts, which can span generations. When we reach within ourselves to discover our humanity, it allows us to reach out to the innocent children and remind them of their resilience and beauty. Trauma can make or break us as individuals, families, and communities.”

In their essay, the authors explain how war can affect children. Children living in war-torn areas expectedly witness a lot of violence, including the killings of their loved ones. This may lead to the inability to sleep properly, difficulty performing daily functions, and a speech impediment. The authors write that trauma cannot be undone and can ruin a child’s life.  

“The sociologist Charles Tilly has argued that war and the nation state are inextricably linked. War has been crucial for the formation of the nation state, and remains crucial for its continuation. Anthony Giddens similarly views a link between the internal pacification of states and their external violence. It may be that, if we want a durable peace, a peace built on something other than war, we need to consider how to construct societies based on something other than the nation state and its monopoly of violence.”

This essay discusses the irony that war is waged to achieve peace. Many justify war and believe it is inevitable, as the world seems to balance out an era of peace with another war. However, others advocate for total pacifism. Even in relatively peaceful times, organizations and countries have been carrying out “shadow wars” or engaging in conflict without necessarily going into outright war. Cleary cites arguments made that for peace to indeed exist by itself, societies must not be built on the war in the first place. 

Many believe that war is justified by providing a means to peace and prosperity. Do you agree with this statement? If so, to what extent? What would you consider “too much” for war to be unjustified? In your essay, respond to these questions and reflect on the nature and morality of war. 

Wars throughout history have been waged for various reasons, including geographical domination, and disagreement over cultural and religious beliefs. In your essay, discuss some of the reasons different countries go to war, you can look into the belief systems that cause disagreements, oppression of people, and leaders’ desire to conquer geographical land. For an interesting essay, look to history and the reasons why major wars such as WWI and WWII occurred.

In this essay, you can write about war’s effects on participating countries. You can focus on the impact of war on specific sectors, such as healthcare or the economy. In your mind, do they outweigh the benefits? Discuss the positive and negative effects of war in your essay. To create an argumentative essay, you can pick a stance if you are for or against war. Then, argue your case and show how its effects are positive, negative, or both.

Many issues arise when waging war, such as the treatment of civilians as “collateral damage,” keeping secrets from the public, and torturing prisoners. For your essay, choose an issue that may arise when fighting a war and determine whether or not it is genuinely “unforgivable” or “unacceptable.” Are there instances where it is justified? Be sure to examples where this issue has arisen before.

Humans have fought countless wars throughout history. Choose one significant war and briefly explain its causes, major events, and effects. Conduct thorough research into the period of war and the political, social, and economic effects occurred. Discuss these points for a compelling cause and effect essay.

For help with this topic, read our guide explaining “what is persuasive writing ?”If you still need help, our guide to grammar and punctuation explains more.

Essay on War and Its Effects

Students are often asked to write an essay on War and Its Effects in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on War and Its Effects

Introduction.

War is a state of armed conflict between different countries or groups within a country. It’s a destructive event that causes loss of life and property.

The Devastation of War

Wars cause immense destruction. Buildings, homes, and infrastructure are often destroyed, leaving people homeless. The loss of resources makes it hard to rebuild.

The human cost of war is huge. Many people lose their lives or get injured. Families are torn apart, and children often lose their parents.

Psychological Impact

War can cause severe psychological trauma. Soldiers and civilians may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder.

250 Words Essay on War and Its Effects

War, a term that evokes immediate images of destruction and death, has been a persistent feature of human history. The consequences are multifaceted, influencing not only the immediate physical realm but also the socio-economic and psychological aspects of society.

Physical Impact

The most direct and visible impact of war is the physical destruction. Infrastructure, homes, and natural resources are often destroyed, leading to a significant decline in the quality of life. Moreover, the loss of human lives is immeasurable, creating a vacuum in societies that is hard to fill.

Socio-Economic Consequences

War also has profound socio-economic effects. Economies are crippled as resources are diverted towards war efforts, leading to inflation, unemployment, and poverty. Social structures are disrupted, with families torn apart and communities displaced.

Psychological Effects

Perhaps the most enduring impact of war is psychological. The trauma of violence and loss can have long-term effects on mental health, leading to conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder. Society at large also suffers, with the collective psyche marked by fear and mistrust.

In conclusion, war leaves an indelible mark on individuals and societies. Its effects are far-reaching and long-lasting, extending beyond the immediate physical destruction to touch every aspect of life. As we continue to study and understand these impacts, it underscores the importance of pursuing peace and conflict resolution.

500 Words Essay on War and Its Effects

The political impact of war.

War significantly alters the political landscape of nations. It often leads to changes in leadership, shifts in power dynamics, and amendments in legal systems. For instance, World War II resulted in the downfall of fascist regimes in Germany and Italy, giving rise to democratic governments. However, war can also destabilize nations, creating power vacuums that may lead to further conflicts, as seen in the aftermath of the Iraq War.

Social Consequences of War

Societies bear the brunt of war’s destructive nature. The loss of life, displacement of people, and the psychological trauma inflicted upon populations are some of the direct social effects. Indirectly, war also affects societal structures and relationships. It can lead to changes in gender roles, as seen during World War I and II where women took on roles traditionally held by men, leading to significant shifts in gender dynamics.

Economic Ramifications of War

The psychological impact of war.

War leaves a deep psychological imprint on those directly and indirectly involved. Soldiers and civilians alike suffer from conditions like Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Moreover, societies as a whole can experience collective trauma, impacting future generations. The psychological scars of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings continue to affect Japanese society today.

In conclusion, war is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon with profound effects that can shape nations and societies in significant ways. Its impacts are not confined to the battlefield but reach deep into the political, social, economic, and psychological fabric of societies. Therefore, understanding its effects is not only essential for historians and political scientists but also for anyone interested in the complexities of human societies and their evolution.

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Home Essay Samples

Essay Samples on War

People always see the subject of war differently, yet it always comes down to the loss, destruction, and the political powers at play. Writing about this topic is never easy unless you are taking a historical approach and explaining the events that have taken place a long time ago. Nevertheless, it’s still challenging to provide reasoning and work with the chronology of specific events. See our war essay examples that address both modern and old-time events that are related to the armed conflicts and the famous battles in American history. Depending on your essay prompt, you should take a closer look at the structure and see how to narrow your ideas down to keep things concise. Check the dates twice and always start with the past by moving towards the future as you offer analysis and explanations. An essay about war shouldn’t be biased as your purpose is to research and explain the facts the way you can, based on evidence. If you are writing a personal or a reflective essay on war, you can provide your thoughts and turn to philosophical aspects of the issue. Check twice with an academic advisor to ensure that you’re on the right track.

The Cold War: A Comprehensive Examination (DBQ)

The Cold War, a geopolitical and ideological conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, left an indelible mark on the 20th century. This essay employs a Document-Based Question (DBQ) approach to delve into the multifaceted aspects of the Cold War, analyzing its origins,...

• International Politics

Ronald Reagan and the Cold War: A Transformational Era

Amidst the intense geopolitical rivalry of the 20th century, ronald reagan cold war emerged as a central figure whose strategic policies and leadership greatly influenced the course of the Cold War. As the 40th President of the United States, Reagan played a pivotal role in...

• Ronald Reagan

NATO, the Cold War, and Civil Rights: Struggles and Achievements

NATO, the Cold War, and civil rights are three interconnected threads that defined the latter half of the 20th century. This essay delves into the complex interplay between these forces, exploring how the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) influenced the global landscape during the Cold...

• Civil Rights

NATO in the Cold War: Unity, Security, and Strategic Alliance

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) emerged as a central pillar of stability and cooperation during the tumultuous era of the Cold War. As a military and political alliance formed in the aftermath of World War II, NATO played a crucial role in shaping the...

The Last Stand of Fox Company during the Korean War

The battle known as the "Last Stand of Fox Company" stands as a testament to the extraordinary courage, resilience, and sacrifice displayed by a small group of American Marines during the Korean War. This essay delves into the historical significance of this harrowing battle, examining...

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The Devastating Aftermath: An Analysis of the Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

World War II marked a pivotal moment in human history, characterized by unprecedented destruction and loss of life. One of the most controversial events of this era was the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, two Japanese cities, by the United States in August 1945. This...

• Atomic Bomb

Examining a Complex Tapestry of the Causes of the First World War

The First World War, often referred to as the Great War, was a global conflict that reshaped the course of history. Its origins and causes are complex, involving a web of political, economic, social, and military factors. This essay delves into the multifaceted causes of...

• World War I

Greta Thunberg's Visit to Ukraine: Highlighting the Environmental Damage from War

The ongoing war in Ukraine has caused immense suffering and loss of life, as well as widescale destruction of homes, infrastructure and livelihoods. However, the environmental consequences of the conflict have received relatively little global attention. This changed when Greta Thunberg, the well-known Swedish climate...

• Environmental Issues
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JP Morgan and BlackRock Involvement in Ukraine

Ukraine has faced immense challenges since the Russian invasion began in February 2022. The country's infrastructure, businesses, and economy have suffered catastrophic damage. As Ukraine looks to rebuild and recover, major financial institutions like JPMorgan Chase and BlackRock have pledged support through investment funds and...

Revealing the Pentagon's Accounting Error: Implications for Ukraine Aid and Ongoing Debates

The Pentagon has revealed that an accounting error led to Ukraine aid being significantly overvalued, with the mistake totaling $6.2 billion across fiscal years 2022 and 2023. This is far higher than the $3 billion accounting error the Pentagon first disclosed in May. According to...

Cluster Munitions in Ukraine: Balancing Military Necessities and Ethical Concerns

The war in Ukraine has raised difficult questions for the United States and its allies about how far to go in supporting Ukraine militarily against the Russian invasion. One of the most controversial decisions was the Biden administration's move in September 2022 to send cluster...

The Perils of Warfare Around Nuclear Reactors: Risks and Concerns of the Situation at Ukraine's Power Plants

The Situation at Ukraine's Nuclear Power Plants Ukraine relies heavily on nuclear energy, with a network of 15 reactors spread across four power plants, supplying over fifty percent of the nation's electrical needs. However, the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in February 2022 has raised...

• Nuclear War

Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant: Unveiling the Complexity

The Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, situated in the southeastern region of Ukraine, stands as an illustrious emblem of European nuclear prowess and global significance. Boasting an impressive array of six nuclear reactors with a staggering total capacity of 6,000 megawatts, this energy behemoth has the...

The Vietnam War: Analysis of Media Representation in America

Introduction “Television brought the brutality of war into the comfort of the living room. Vietnam was lost in the living rooms of America-not on the battlefields of Vietnam” (McLuhan, 1975). The Vietnam War was not the bloodiest or most expensive war, but it left a...

• Impact of Media
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The Devastating Impact of Atomic Bombs: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Without learning our past, whether that be filled with justice finally being restored or injustice, we must learn it in order to move forward. As Martin Luther King jr. has once said in his book from strength to love, “We are not makers of history;...

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Politicians as the Decision Makers Must Share the Blame

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• World History

A Comparative Analysis: Gunpowder and Nuclear Weapons in Military History

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Was the Cold War Inevitable: an Unavoidable Taciturn Warfare

There are many questions raised concerning the taciturn confrontation amid U.S.A and U.S.S.R. People still raise concerns about whether the cold war was unavoidable and if so, what the factors that made it inevitable were. The cold war was coined on politically aware, monetary as...

• American History

Who Won the Cold War: Indicators of the US Victory

The Cold War is regarded as the period from 1945 to 1991, although some people would argue that it ended in 1990. The Cold War pitted the US against the Soviet Union due to differing attitudes in politics and military between the superpowers. There has...

Rethinking the Causes of Cold War: Aggression or Misunderstandings

The Cold War, an epic proxy struggle of the 20th century, remains an enigma wrapped in perplexity and burstiness. It emerged from the complex and hostile relations between the newly established superpowers, the US and USSR, which led to the infamous divide between the East...

Iraq Invasion: Reflection on Why the War Went So Badly

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Unveiling the Complex Factors Behind the Invasion of Iraq

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Analysis of Three Perspectives to Explain the Dynamic of Iraq War

Within this paper we will take a look at the Iraq War from three different perspectives: realism, the theory of Power Transition and constructivism. All of them describe possible causes of this war from different viewpoints.  To start with realism, according to this perspective Bush's...

The Impact of Nazi Germany's Intervention in the Spanish Civil War

If Nazi Germany's intervention in the Spanish Civil War were examined in isolation, one might conclude that it was a tremendous success. In the military sphere, they achieved their principal aim when Franco's Nationalist forces emerged victorious. Additionally, Nazi Germany was able to use the...

• Nazi Germany

The Global War on Terror (GWoT) as the Iraq War Discourse

After the 911 attacks, the US launched a Global War on Terror (GWoT) and this subsequently formed a discourse which had a major role in the Iraq War, particularly the initial phases. The GWoT discourse can be explored through ideas of Orientalism because of the...

• Global Governance

Articles of Confederation: The Effects These Policies Had on the American Government

Introduction The early years of America presented issues of a fragile nation that could easily plunge into retrogression. Various ideologies propagated by the first president shaped the direction to which the current state took. In view of the new nation, the early years rarely receive...

• Articles of Confederation

Articles of Confederation, Colonization and Slavery as Factors That Formed America

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Antonio Luna: Significant Figure of Spanish American War

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The Issue of Immigration After the Spanish American War

Primary reasons for American intervention in foreign affairs were for foreign trade with other nations and to gain territory in other regions to expand. The “yellow journals” contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War because it pushed America’s involvement further by turning American’s opinion...

The Effect of World War I and the Concept of Anzac Legend

The First and Second World Wars were two of the most significant wars in recent history that profoundly shaped the world as we know it today, bringing with them waves of change in all its participants and many bystanders. Australia was no exception to this,...

The ANZAC Spirit as the Essence of the Soldier in World War I

World War 1, also known as The Great War, began in 1914 and lasted until 1918. It was a global conflict. Described as ‘the war to end all wars’, it caused over 15 million deaths and left many more permanently and severely disabled. The Australian...

The Harmful Impact of Conscription and ANZAC Legend

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The Idea of Anzac Legend Among the Australian Soldiers

Australia’s Anzac history is a vital part of the country’s national identity. On the 25th of April 1915, Australian and New Zealand soldiers landed on the Gallipoli beach, as they were part of an allied expedition to capture the Gallipoli peninsula and to get the...

The Role of USS Maine in Spanish American War: Clandestine Destruction in Cuban Waters

A “false flag” is defined as being an action or attack through a clandestine identity while implying another nation or group of people as the culprit (False flag, n.d). The 15th of February, 1998 marks the date the famous U.S. Navy battleship called the “USS...

The Articles Of Confederation Vs The Constitution

The Articles of Confederation, the fledgling nation's first constitution, were enacted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation established a system in which the colonies, which are now states, kept the majority of authority. As a result, the central government...

• Comparative Analysis
• Constitution

Who Won The Cold War: United States Or Soviet Union

Following the second World War America experienced a period filled with highs and lows. They went from a golden age as a result of their success in World War II and establishing themselves as the leading world power, to facing one of the most dangerous...

• United States

World War I As An Impetus For The Development Of The World's Armies

Militarism alone didn't begin World War I yet it made a situation where war, instead of arrangement or discretion, was viewed as the most ideal method for settling universal questions. To prove this, this essay will encompass progress made in militarism. To this end, this...

• Treaty of Versailles

"Slaughterhouse-Five": Main Character Analysis

In Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five, Billy Pilgrim is not time traveling nor going to an alien planet. Time-traveling and going to an alien planet becomes coping mechanisms through which he can deal with traumatic events that he experiences during his lifetime. Billy is suffering from post-traumatic...

• Mental Illness
• Slaughterhouse Five
• World War II

Hundred Years War And It's Impact On France

Hundred years war has it's significant role in the history of English language and in the development of English language. This war leads to the some uncertain events in the western world. These events changed the shape of politics territory beliefs and religion of west....

• Great Britain
• Hundred Years War
• Middle Ages

The Mexican Drug War: Main Problems

In 2007, the Mexican Drug Cartel controlled 90% of the Cocaine brought to the United States. Cocaine, however, doesn’t come without its close relatives, violence and death. The Mexican War on Drugs is as much a concern to the United States as it is to...

• Drug Trafficking
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Holocaust: Dr. Josef Mengele Biography

 You ask someone, “what is the worst crime in living memory?” And their answers will most likely be “the Holocaust.” How could someone be so cruel and want to kill 6 million Jews? Well, that’s exactly what happened with Dr. Josef Mengele. The first time...

• Josef Mengele

Women In Combat: Inclusion Of Women In The Selective Service

A recent article written by Ruth Ben-Ghiat and published by CNN is shining light on the issue of the Selective Service only requiring men to register. In the modern world of equality the question begs; why exclude women of this mandatory requirement for every American...

• Women in Combat

Road War To The Civil War: Mexican American War And How It Was Justified

Missouri Compromise/ Compromise of 1820 Missouri compromise was passed into law in 1820 and it regulated slavery, although it took place 41 years before the civil war it played a huge role in the civil war. After the Louisiana purchase, Missouri wanted to be admitted...

• Mexican American

Women In Combat: Women In The World War II

By 1943, a couple of years into World War ll, the war recruiting departments were having a hard time finding enough men to send off to war. That began a movement to recruit women into the military. They were going to be allowed to take...

Atomic Bomb: Was The Dropping Of It Justified

The initial stages of World War II was a difficult transition for the US. From an isolationist period, FDR was reluctantly moving the US to confront the “non-democratic” threats of Germany and Japan. Not long, however, did the Pearl Harbor attack instigate the immediate transition...

Japanese Internment Camps And The Unethical Behavior

The United States has a history of unethical behavior that affected several American citizens, these events remind us what came before and how we grew to where we are today. A prime example of this can be shown through the Japanese internment camps. The Japanese...

• Japanese Internment Camps

The Discriminatory Actions Of The Japanese Internment Camps

Racism towards Japanese goes way back to 1877 when white settlers excluded the first Japanese man Manzo Nagano in BC, 65 years before the Japanese Internment during WWII. Not to mention, the Provincial Government of British Columbia passed laws that made it hard for Japanese...

The Horrific Tragedies Of Japanese Internment Camps

In the year 1942, Executive Order 9066 was issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and this day denoted the start of the use of Japanese internment camps and denoted the completion of the Japanese populace being seen and viewed as of particular people (Wenger, 2016)....

Comparison And Contrast Of World War I And World War Ii

Have you ever wondered how the allied powers became victorious in World War I and World War II? In 1914 World War I began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand heir to the Austrian-Hungary throne. Austria-Hungary decided to invade Serbia and Germany sided with...

Civil War And Reconstruction: Failure Or Success

The United State had to go through many wars to become the most powerful country in the world like nowadays. At that hard and long history, the Civil War and the Reconstruction were the names of those famous wars that not only every single person...

• Reconstruction Era of The United States

The Bombings Of Hiroshima And Nagasaki And Justified Reasoning Behind

The second World War was the largest and bloodiest war in human history, with an estimated 75 million casualties, and it was all brought to a close by the dropping of the atom bombs. By the summer of 1945, the fighting with Germany had already...

The Effect Of Slavery And Westward Expansion On Civil War

A long-argued debate among historians is whether the Civil War was inevitable or not, it can be seen as an 'impending crisis' or a conflict that could’ve been avoided if not for a 'blundering generation' of leaders. By examining the events leading up to the...

• Slavery in The World
• Westward Expansion

Slavery: The Main Cause Of The Civil War

The Civil conflict was fought within the years 1861-1865 over the problem of slavery. In simplistic phrases the number one causes of Civil battle were the variations in reviews approximately the issue of slavery, and politics approximately the identical. Political agendas are rife in conditions...

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Slavery As The Cause Of The Civil War

In the book, The Civil War, it starts off with how the early Americans were mostly farmers and how they believed to be the happiest people in the world, and how slavery became an uprising effort in the south. Thus leading the North and the...

The Context Behind Hiroshima And Nagasaki Bombings Justified

I decided to write about detonation of atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Relevance and significance of this topic is certainly present because the problem of applying atomic weapons is now more relevant than ever in our contemporary world. Even since 1940s, a lot of...

Separating Families During The Korean War

In 1953, Korea’s sudden division tore families apart. The absence of viable solutions for reunification means the pain and plight of separated families remain the most emotional legacies of the Korean War (Source 1 & 4). For 66 years, communication services between the Koreas remain...

Role Of Women In The Korean War

Women have always been the backbone to the success in war. Captain Viola McConnell should be recognized for her outstanding contributions to the Korean War. Often women are overlooked for the accomplishments they have done especially in war. Since the beginning of the first war,...

Literature Review Of The "Armies Of Manifest Destiny"

The Mexican American War was a two-year-long war between the United States and Mexico over the land of Texas, New Mexico, and California. This battle took place in Mexico and ended with the United States being victorious. The U.S gained the land as a reward...

• Manifest Destiny

The Goals Of Mexican Revolution

Revolutions are supposed to bring changes, but do you think the Mexican Revolution was truly useful? Civil wars have occurred throughout history, trying to achieve a change, either a positive or a negative. For example, we have the Russian Revolution, where the Bolsheviks, led by...

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Crucial Event For American History: The Attack On Pearl Harbor

The most tragic events concerning the history of the U.S. are the Civil War, Pearl Harbor, and September 11, 2001. Particularly, the Attack on Pearl Harbor marked the point of no return, when America could not refrain from the intervention in the Second World War....

• Pearl Harbor

What Historical Events Led To The Civil War

In my view, I think that westward expansion was one of the biggest reasons why the American civil war broke out in 1861. The main reason why westward expansion started was that the president of the United States started to buy more land to add...

George Washington In The Revolutionary War

Introduction In this paper you are going to read, you may find some things about George Washington you may never have known. (Like me) Get ready to read about George Washington! Who was George Washington George Washington was a very important man in the late...

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The Atomic Bomb: The Development And Devastation

On October 11, 1939, Alexander Sachs, an economic advisor for Franklin D. Roosevelt, personally delivered the president a letter. Before this, in 1938, a lab in Berlin, Germany had discovered nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is when an atom of radioactive material splits, and there is...

The Cuban Missile Crisis: Breaking The Communication Barrier In The Cold War

Imagine a world where a nuclear war had taken place and much of the United States and modern Russia were annihilated in a fiery holocaust. In this world, the Cold War escalated into a full-on war. Our world came within mere millimeters of this fate...

• Cuban Missile Crisis
• John F. Kennedy

Short Term Effects Of Cuban Missile Crisis

Never has the world been closer to nuclear war as it was 13 days in October 1962. The Soviet Union and the US, both great nations, challenged each other immensely and almost let the rest of the world pay the price. The world held its...

It's All About The Patriots, Not Loyalist In The Postcolonialism

In 1776 we as colonist were faced with the tough decision of what side we were going to take, if the event of a war were to happen. There were three options that we could have taken. The first, was siding with the British, which...

• Thirteen Colonies

The Progression Of Japan's Attack On Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor was one of the most devastating attacks on the U.S. in history. It was a complete surprise attack by Japan on the U.S. naval base of Pearl Harbor. I will be talking about what led up to the attack, what transpired during the...

The Significance And Outcomes Of The First Hague Peace Conference

In order to understand and summarise the significance of The First Hague Peace conference, it is imperative to locate it not only within the twentieth-century, but as a derivative of nineteenth-century political events. One segment of World War 1 historians who focused on diplomacy either...

• Disarmament

International Court Of Justice Decisions On Nuclear Arms.

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• The United Nations

Reasons Why Articles Of Confederation Need To Be Replaced

As all historians and anybody who has studied the brief period between the end of the revolutionary war and the ratification of the constitution, there was total chaos. That chaos can be attributed to the Articles of Confederation. The Articles of Confederation were like the...

How New Warfare Technologies Introduced In The Ww1 Changed History

The face of military combat was changed when new technology was invented. Clubs, javelinas, crossbows and swords were once the technology used in combat, but once the Great War began, counties were not messing around with their weapons of choice. Some time ago firing shots...

• Trench Warfare

Fictional Report Assignment: World War Ii As A Burden On Japan

I am Yamashita Kouji, an anti-war resistance fighter in Japan, 1945. Since Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in 1931, I have seen how the militaristic government’s policies have been ruining the country and our society. Hence, to save our beloved homeland, I have been taking part...

• Battle of Midway

Beginning And Development Of Israeli-palestinian Conflict: A Dispute Without A Foreseeable End

Ever since the dawn of time, humans have been starting conflicts. Every war ever started has been a conflict that people still talk about today. There have been so many conflicts that it would be hard to count due to it being a problem globally....

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The Three Major Historical Developments Of 1914

We learned about World War 1, World War 2, the Cold War, the global south, and global challenges. While learning about these wars and challenges of the south, World War 1, World War 2, and the Cold War really stood out as major historical developments...

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The Factors of the Success of Insurgency Groups: Analysis of Examples

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Taglit-birthright And The Upholding Of The Palestinian Occupation

Over 600,000 Jews from around the world have embarked on the informal educational, all expenses paid, Taglit Birthright trip to Israel. What this paper will draw to question is whether this is simply a free trip. This paper will look at the graphics of Birthright...

How Women In The Nightingale Took The War By Storm Leading To Victory

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• The Nightingale

Zachary Taylor: Last Stand Of The Hero Of The Mexican War

The Mexican War was a major power struggle attempting to see who would have the rights to Texas. Texas had gained its independence as a result of war during the years of 1835 and 1836. The United States, as well as other countries were willing...

Questioning Rationality Behind Suicide Bombing

Suicide bombing, probably the most shocking tactic employed by terrorists, is becoming increasingly common around the world. The first suicide bombings having gained significant media attention were carried out by Hezbollah, a Shia Islamist organization in 1983. This led to the misconception that suicide attacks...

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Analysis Of Alternative Policies To Replace Articles Of Confederation

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Articles Of Confederation: Creation And Management Of Early Republic

The Articles of Confederation was the first document that help started the government of the United States. The Articles of Confederation was weak and fragile. It did not have the authority or ability to for example to collect taxes, or police trade but under the...

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Story Summary Of The Nightingale By Kristin Hannah

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Tinker V. Des Moines: The Tinkers That Broke A Free Speech Barrier

Freedom of speech and expression, a fundamental human right, allows the U.S. to communicate on important issues in society. Unfortunately, it is frequently ignored during times of war. In 1919, in the Schenk V. United States case, Justice Holmes wrote, “When a nation is at...

• Free Speech

Propaganda Spread and the Rise of Fascist Groups in Canada During the Great Depression

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What Can Account for the Strong Relationship Between Israel and the US

The special relationship between the US and Israel can be shown to stem back all the way to Harry Truman's administration. Over the years the relationship has increased in strength with support being highest during President Raegan' tenure. His administration waived loans by giving them...

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Why War and Leader Pride Will Become the End of Humanity

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Chronology of the Syrian Civil War and Its Impacts on the Country

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The Horrifying Reality of War in Ishmael Beah's Novel A Long Way Gone

“A Long Way Gone” written by author Ishmael Beah is a book about a young boy named Ishmael who went through a lot of early teenage trauma because of a war that was happening in his home country. The author wrote this book about his...

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Timeline of the Impactful Events in the History of the U.S. During 17th-19th Centuries

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The Reaction to the Westward Expansion and Its Consequences

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Introduction One could argue that education was motivated by labor productivity (industrialization and economics) and politics, but “mass socialist” education to a significant extent most immediately contributed to revolution and cultural change towards a revolutionary awareness. The U.S. backed Batista during his term as president...

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World War I

An introduction to world war i.

World War I was a defining event in world history. In August 1914 the nations of Europe tumbled into a war that would ravage their continent and shape the course of the next century. Mankind had known wars of destruction and folly before – but none approached the scale and barbarity of World War I. For four years Europe was paralysed and ravaged by the horrors of industrial weaponry, militarism and total war. The war lacerated the continent, creating two war fronts spanning hundreds of miles each. Millions of fit, healthy men were placed in uniform and marched into the killing fields of France, Belgium and the Eastern Front. Fighting also spread beyond the war’s European crucible, breaking out in the Dardanelles, the Middle East and the distant colonies of Africa and Asia. On the seas, cargo ships and passenger vessels were threatened by blockades and destroyed by submarines, a revolutionary form of naval warfare. World War I was also fought high in the sky, by flying machines that had not been conceived just two decades before. Conflict on this scale required ‘total war’: a war supplied and perpetuated by the coordinated efforts of governments, economies and entire societies. As Winston Churchill later said, “all the horrors of all the ages were brought together; not only armies but whole populations were thrust into the midst of them”.

Human error and misjudgement were tragic features of the conflict. The historian A. J. P. Taylor once wrote that blunders shape history more than wickedness; he might have said this with World War I in mind. Many elements of the war, particularly its causes, now seem avoidable, if not absurd. The war emerged not from a pressing dispute or territorial claim, but a poisonous mix of nationalism, xenophobia, paranoia, militaristic bravado, imperialist ambition, misunderstanding and folly. None of this caught anyone by surprise: these attitudes had prickled European relations since the late 19th century. Looking back a century later, it seems ridiculous that modern statesmen and intellectuals could be so blind to these dangers. But blind they were – and the consequences for those they ruled would prove catastrophic. Military and strategic incompetence and short-sightedness also played their part. For years Europe’s career generals had predicted, even expected an industrial war, yet they failed to anticipate what form it might take. Their battle plans were largely based on outdated modes of warfare, some dating back to the days of Napoleon. Strategists clung to the idea that any defensive line could be penetrated, if enough men, horses and bayonets were thrown against it. Germany’s Schlieffen Plan – an ambitious offensive and flanking attack, designed to knock the French out of the war before Russia could fully mobilise – fell short of its ultimate objectives. By late 1914 the Schlieffen assault, slowed by French and Belgian resistance, had run out of steam. As millions of troops poured into northern France, the war froze into stalemate. Armies dug into the ground so that they could hold it; the value of the offensive push was negated by the machine gun and the trench. In just a few weeks of war, the best plans of Europe’s military elite had been exposed as as balderdash.

“The First World War was a tragic and unnecessary conflict. Unnecessary because the train of events that led to its outbreak might have been broken at any point during the five weeks of crisis that preceded the first clash of arms, had prudence or common goodwill found a voice; tragic because the consequences of the first clash ended the lives of ten million human beings, tortured the emotional lives of millions more, destroyed the benevolent and optimistic culture of the European continent and left, when the guns at last fell silent four years later, a legacy of political rancour and racial hatred so intense that no explanation of the causes of the Second World War can stand without reference to those roots… Over half those who died in the Great War were lost as corpses to the wilderness of the battlefield.” John Keegan, historian

The human cost of World War I was staggering. At least 12 million people were killed on the battlefield, many of them utterly obliterated. Millions more were left wounded and disfigured, limbless, crippled or seriously injured. The weapons of industrial warfare, particularly artillery and machine gun fire, chewed through young men as a farm machine threshes through hay. Around ten per cent of all French men under the age of 45 were killed or reported missing. Russia lost so many soldiers it was unable to tally them accurately to the nearest million. Sparsely populated Australia sent more than 415,000 volunteer servicemen – almost ten per cent of its entire population – to the battlefields of Gallipoli, the Middle East and the Western Front. Of this number around one Australian serviceman in every seven would die. Very few of the wartime generation escaped physical suffering, psychological scarring or bereavement. Almost every civilian had a connection with casualties of war.

In some respects World War I was a confrontation between the old and the new, a transforming event that shattered traditional ideas and beliefs. The war certainly changed the political, social and cultural landscape of Europe. Its most visible fatalities were Europe’s old monarchies, which did not survive the maelstrom they themselves had unleashed. In Germany, the Hohenzollern monarchy was toppled from within by its starving people, the kaiser abdicating and taking refuge in Holland. In Russia, the Romanov tsar suffered an even worse fate, overthrown by his own people and later murdered. In Austria-Hungary, neither the Hapsburg royal house or its patchwork empire survived the war. While the removal of these old dynasties was celebrated by many as a step into modernity, their departure left power vacuums and new regimes that proved no better – and in the case of Russia was considerably worse. The war also fanned the flames of political and social reform. Left wing politics flourished as Europeans sought new answers and explanations. The melancholy post war years also gave rise to modernist artistic movements, that sought to capture the despair of the people.

The final battleground of World War I was in the meeting rooms of Paris in 1919. There the statesmen of Europe set about rebuilding their continent and crafting a peace they hoped would last for generations. History reveals it as a battle they lost. The worst decisions are often made in anger – and the ‘big men’ of Paris placed a higher store on blame and retribution than on reconciliation and reconstruction. Germany, excluded from the peace talks, was forced to admit absolute responsibility for starting the war. She was stripped of her industries, left with a skeleton military and slapped with crippling reparations payments. Already devastated by years of war and starvation, the German state soon became an economic basket case, leaving it open to the perils of political extremism. Thinking themselves betrayed and unjustly treated, Germany’s ex-soldiers, militarists and bigots embraced an even more intense and embittered nationalism. The Austro-Hungarian empire was torn apart, its land and people handed to existing nations or used to create new ones. The United States also contributed to the failure of post-war reconstruction. Washington’s refusal to accept membership of the League of Nations, a multi-national body intended to resolve crisis and prevent war, undermined this body before it was even formed.

Alpha History’s World War I section contains more than 400 different resources, including succinct yet informative topic pages, supplementary information and a wide array of primary sources. These resources will help you obtain a confident understanding of one of the 20th century’s most important historical events.

© Alpha History 2014. Content on this page may not be republished or distributed without permission. For more information please refer to our Terms of Use . This page was written by Jennifer Llewellyn, Jim Southey and Steve Thompson. To reference this page, use the following citation: J. Llewellyn et al , “An introduction to World War I” at Alpha History , https://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/introduction-to-world-war-i/, 2014, accessed [date of last access].

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World History

Cold war introduction.

The uneasy alliance between the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union that defeated Nazi Germany began to unravel after World War II, giving rise to an ongoing political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies that became known as the Cold War, a name coined separately by English writer George Orwell  and American presidential adviser Bernard Baruch . The United States and the Soviet Union had emerged from the World War II as the planet’s only superpowers, and, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, while the U.S. was employing  the Marshall Plan to help resurrect the economies and democracies of western Europe, the U.S.S.R. was establishing communist regimes in eastern Europe and keeping them on a tight leash. By the mid-1950s the two camps had formed competing military alliances, the U.S.-led North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. With the triumph of the communists in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the Soviet bloc had gained another formidable ally in the People’s Republic of China.

Over the next four plus decades the two sides engaged in ideological battle for the hearts and minds of the rest of the world, especially the decolonized nations of the so-called Third World. Sometimes that competition heated up in wars fought indirectly through surrogates or by one side facing forces supported by the other (most notably the Korean and Vietnam wars). In 1962, with both sides in possession of arsenals of nuclear weapons, the world was poised on the brink of nuclear war during the Cuban missile crisis. Thereafter the Soviet Union and United States threatened Earth with massive annihilation as they raced each other in the accumulation of thermonuclear weapons even as they sought to negotiate disarmament. Seeking to persuade the world of the superiority of their respective ideologies—Soviet communism, American democratic capitalism—the U.S.S.R and U.S., each convinced of their opponent’s unquenchable desire to dominate the world, competed on every field imaginable, from the race to space to the dash for Olympic finish lines. Their tools also included persuasion, propaganda, and lots of military and financial aid. By the early 1990s, the Cold War came to end with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and its bloc, though why that came about is still debated.

Iron Curtain

Berlin wall, third world, video: berlin wall escapes.

Learn about the construction of the Berlin Wall and how East Germans tried to find a way past it.

Wartime Big Three Conferences​

Believing that the maintenance of postwar peace depended on friendly relations with the Soviet Union, U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to win the confidence of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin at the wartime meetings between himself, Stalin, and British Minister Winston Churchill , at which they planned military strategy and postwar policy. The “Big Three” met first at Tehrān (November 1943) and then in Yalta (February 1945). At the final wartime meeting of the U.S., U.K., and U.S.S.R. leaders, in Potsdam (August 1945), Roosevelt, who had died, was replaced by Pres. Harry Truman and Churchill gave way to Clement Attlee after a change of government in the U.K.

Tehran Conference

Yalta conference, potsdam conference, video: overview of the potsdam conference.

Learn about the Potsdam Conference, attended by Winston Churchill, Harry Truman, and Joseph Stalin to decide the future of Germany and Europe after WWII.

Cold War Pages

Cold War Competition: Space & Sports

Rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union in the Space Race and sports were an extension of their attempts to prove the superiority of their respective systems.

The Red Scare, Spies, & Cold War Fiction and Film

As the Cold War intensified in the 1950s, anti-communism and fears of communist subversion pervaded American society.

Nuclear War & Arms Control​

The dropping of atomic bombs on Japan during World War II began the Atomic Age of nuclear warfare and strategy.

Cold War Alliances & Leaders

Cold War alliances were formed by the U.S. and U.S.S.R. and their respective allies.

Cold War Policies, Propaganda, & Speeches

The Cold War was a strategic and tactical contest to influence the nature of the governments and societies of the world’s countries.

Major Cold War Events

On occasion actions by both sides of the Cold War divide resulted in confrontations that brought the ideological adversaries to the brink of war.

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Introduction

• Published: March 2017
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Since the writings of the scholastics and jurists of the late Renaissance and Early Modern periods (from roughly the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries), two precepts have underwritten accounts of the morality of war. First: war is perspicuously described as a relation not between individuals but between states (or, at least, as a relation between a state and a collective with aspirations of attaining—or undermining—statehood). Second: the rules governing conduct in war should proceed independently of whether the war fought is just or unjust. These precepts form the basis of what is known as “Just War theory,” which today informs the judgments of ethicists, government officials, international lawyers, religious scholars, news coverage, and perhaps most important, the public as a whole. The influence of Just War theory is as vast as it is subtle; many are inclined to identify the criteria of Just War theory, once made explicit, as common sense. Indeed, according to David Rodin, Just War theory is “one of the few basic fixtures of medieval philosophy to remain substantially unchallenged in the modern world.” 1 The most modern and compellingly articulated formulation of this theory is Michael Walzer’s influential book Just and Unjust Wars written in 1977, 2 which has become a sine qua non for those interested in the morality of war.

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World War I Introduction and Overview

Belligerent nations.

• Origins of World War I

World War I on Land

World war i at sea, technical innovation, modern view.

• M.A., Medieval Studies, Sheffield University
• B.A., Medieval Studies, Sheffield University

World War I was a major conflict fought in Europe and around the world between July 28, 1914, and November 11, 1918. Nations from across all non-polar continents were involved , although Russia, Britain, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary dominated. Much of the war was characterized by stagnant trench warfare and massive loss of life in failed attacks; over eight million people were killed in battle.

The war was fought by two main power blocks: the Entente Powers , or 'Allies,' comprised of Russia, France, Britain (and later the U.S.), and their allies on one side and the Central Powers of Germany, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, and their allies on the other. Italy later joined the Entente. Many other countries played smaller parts on both sides.

Origins of World War I

To understand the origins , it is important to understand how politics at the time. European politics in the early twentieth century were a dichotomy: many politicians thought war had been banished by progress while others, influenced partly by a fierce arms race, felt war was inevitable. In Germany, this belief went further: the war should happen sooner rather than later, while they still (as they believed) had an advantage over their perceived major enemy, Russia. As Russia and France were allied, Germany feared an attack from both sides. To mitigate this threat, the Germans developed the Schlieffen Plan , a swift looping attack on France designed to knock it out early, allowing for concentration on Russia.

Rising tensions culminated on June 28th, 1914 with the assassination of  Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand  by a Serbian activist, an ally of Russia. Austro-Hungary asked for German support and was promised a 'blank cheque'; they declared war on Serbia on July 28th. What followed was a sort of domino effect as more and more nations joined the fight . Russia mobilized to support Serbia, so Germany declared war on Russia; France then declared war on Germany. As German troops swung through Belgium into France days later, Britain declared war on Germany too. Declarations continued until much of Europe was at war with each other. There was widespread public support.

After the swift German invasion of France was stopped at the Marne, 'the race to the sea' followed as each side tried to outflank each other ever closer to the English Channel. This left the entire Western Front divided by over 400 miles of trenches, around which the war stagnated. Despite massive battles like Ypres , little progress was made and a battle of attrition emerged, caused partly by German intentions to 'bleed the French dry' at Verdun and Britain's attempts on the Somme . There was more movement on the Eastern Front with some major victories, but there was nothing decisive and the war carried on with high casualties.

Attempts to find another route into their enemy’s territory led to the failed Allied invasion of Gallipoli, where Allied forces held a beachhead but were halted by fierce Turkish resistance. There was also conflict on the Italian front, the Balkans, the Middle East, and smaller struggles in colonial holdings where the warring powers bordered each other.

Although the build-up to war had included a naval arms race between Britain and Germany, the only large naval engagement of the conflict was the Battle of Jutland, where both sides claimed victory. Instead, the defining struggle involved submarines and the German decision to pursue Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (USW). This policy allowed submarines to attack any target they found, including those belonging to the 'neutral' United States, which caused the latter to enter the war in 1917 on behalf of the Allies, supplying much-needed manpower.

Despite Austria-Hungary becoming little more than a German satellite, the Eastern Front was the first to be resolved, the war causing massive political and military instability in Russia, leading to the Revolutions of 1917 , the emergence of socialist government and surrender on December 15. Efforts by the Germans to redirect manpower and take the offensive in the west failed and, on November 11, 1918 (at 11:00 am), faced with allied successes, massive disruption at home and the impending arrival of vast US manpower, Germany signed an Armistice, the last Central power to do so.

Each of the defeated nations signed a treaty with the Allies, most significantly the Treaty of Versailles which was signed with Germany, and which has been blamed for causing further disruption ever since. There was devastation across Europe: 59 million troops had been mobilized, over 8 million died and over 29 million were injured. Huge quantities of capital had been passed to the now emergent United States and the culture of every European nation was deeply affected and the struggle became known as The Great War or The War to End All Wars.

World War I was the first to make major use of machine guns, which soon showed their defensive qualities. It was also the first to see poison gas used on the battlefields, a weapon which both sides made use of, and the first to see tanks, which were initially developed by the allies and later used to great success. The use of aircraft evolved from simply reconnaissance to a whole new form of aerial warfare.

Thanks partly to a generation of war poets who recorded the horrors of the war and a generation of historians who castigated the Allied high command for their decisions and ‘waste of life’ (Allied soldiers being the 'Lions led by Donkeys'), the war was generally viewed as a pointless tragedy. However, later generations of historians have found mileage in revising this view. While the Donkeys have always been ripe for recalibration, and careers built on provocation have always found material (such as Niall Ferguson's The Pity of War ), the centenary commemorations found historiography split between a phalanx wishing to create a new martial pride and sideline the worst of the war to create an image of a conflict well worth fighting and then truly won by the allies, and those who wished to stress the alarming and pointless imperial game millions of people died for. The war remains highly controversial and as subject to attack and defense as the newspapers of the day.

• World War I: A Battle to the Death
• World War I: A War of Attrition
• World War I: A Stalemate Ensues
• World War I: Opening Campaigns
• World War I Battles
• The Consequences of World War I
• World War I: Zimmerman Telegram
• World War I's Mitteleuropa
• The US Economy in World War I
• War Industries Board: History and Purpose
• The Major Alliances of World War I
• Women in World War I: Societal Impacts
• World War I: A Global Struggle
• The Controversial Versailles Treaty Ended World War I
• Causes of World War I and the Rise of Germany
• What Was the World War I Sopwith Camel?

Home — Essay Samples — War — Cold War

Essays on Cold War

Hook examples for cold war essays, the tension-building anecdote hook.

Start your essay with a gripping anecdote from the Cold War era, such as a close encounter between opposing forces, a spy's daring mission, or a pivotal diplomatic negotiation.

The Iron Curtain Metaphor Hook

Draw parallels between the Iron Curtain that divided Europe during the Cold War and modern-day geopolitical divisions. Explore how historical lessons can inform contemporary politics.

The Cuban Missile Crisis Revelation Hook

Begin with a revelation about the Cuban Missile Crisis, a pivotal event during the Cold War. Discuss the world's reaction to this crisis and its implications for global peace.

The Space Race Innovation Hook

Highlight the innovative aspects of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Discuss the technological advancements and the impact on science and society.

The Proxy Wars Connection Hook

Start by exploring the concept of proxy wars during the Cold War. Discuss how these conflicts shaped the global political landscape and their relevance in today's world.

The Nuclear Arms Race Factoid Hook

Begin with startling facts about the nuclear arms race between superpowers. Discuss the fear of nuclear annihilation and its lasting effects on international relations.

The Espionage and Spy Games Hook

Introduce your essay by delving into the world of espionage during the Cold War. Discuss famous spies, intelligence agencies, and the intrigue of espionage operations.

The Cultural Cold War Reference Hook

Start with references to the cultural aspects of the Cold War, including the influence of literature, music, and art. Discuss how cultural diplomacy played a role in the conflict.

The End of the Cold War Paradox Hook

Begin with the paradox of the peaceful end of the Cold War. Explore the factors that contributed to its conclusion and the subsequent geopolitical shifts.

The Lessons from History Hook

Start by reflecting on the lessons that can be learned from the Cold War. Discuss how understanding this historical period can inform contemporary foreign policy and global relations.

The Assassination of Patrice Lumumba: a Historical Analysis

The cold war between the united states and the soviet union, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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Analysis of How Did The Cold War Shaped American Politics, Society, and Economy

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How The Atomic Bomb Invention Contributed to The WW2 and The Cold War

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American Policy of Containment During The Cold War and Its Consequences

Fears of america and the emergence of the cold war, america's leadership position at an international stage, the impact of world war ii and the cold war on the development of science in the 20th century, ronald reagan and mikhail gorbachev: discussion on resolving the cold war, analysis of the influence behind the actions of the united states army, cuban missile crisis as a world changing event, the korean war – a conflict between the soviet union and the united states, apocalypse now - cold war perspectives, the political situation in brazil during the cold war, the development of the peace corps in america, the geography of the cold war: why the us embarked on a containment policy, religion as one of the causes of the cold war, red scare: incitement to hatred of anarchy and communism, beware the red scare: another red threat to america, american containment strategy and the end of the cold war, history of american life in the early postwar era, advantages, disadvantages, and application of aip in modern submarines, president eisenhower - a cold war philosophical and rhetorical view on the farewell address, the aggressive actions of the united states against the soviet union in jeffrey burds' the early cold war in soviet west ukraine, 1944-1948.

12 March 1947 – 26 December 1991 (44 years and 9 months)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Soviet Union, United States, Warsaw Treaty Organization.

Winston Churchill, Joseph Stalin, Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Nikita Khrushchev, John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan

Cuban missile crisis, Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, Berlin crisis of 1961, collapse of the Soviet Union

The Cold War was a period of political tension and military rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, lasting roughly from the late 1940s to the early 1990s. It emerged in the aftermath of World War II when ideological differences and geopolitical interests between the two superpowers intensified. The historical context of the Cold War can be traced back to the division of Europe after World War II, with the United States championing democratic principles and capitalism, while the Soviet Union sought to spread communism and establish spheres of influence. This ideological divide led to a series of confrontations and proxy wars fought between the two powers and their respective allies. The development of nuclear weapons added a dangerous dimension to the conflict, as both sides engaged in an arms race to gain a strategic advantage. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, a standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union over the placement of nuclear missiles in Cuba, brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.

The division of the world into two ideological blocs: The capitalist bloc led by the United States and the communist bloc led by the Soviet Union. The arms race and nuclear proliferation, leading to the stockpiling of nuclear weapons by both superpowers and the development of advanced military technology. The establishment of military alliances such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and the Warsaw Pact, which solidified the division between the Western and Eastern blocs. Proxy wars and conflicts fought between the United States and the Soviet Union or their respective allies, such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and various conflicts in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The spread of communism to several countries, including Eastern European nations that became part of the Soviet-dominated Eastern Bloc. The Cuban Missile Crisis, a tense standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1962, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, marking the end of the Cold War and the transition to a unipolar world with the United States as the dominant superpower.

One of the major effects of the Cold War was the division of the world into two competing blocs, the United States-led capitalist bloc and the Soviet Union-led communist bloc. This ideological divide created a bipolar world order and fueled numerous proxy wars and conflicts around the world, such as the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union was another significant consequence of the Cold War. Both superpowers invested heavily in the development and stockpiling of nuclear weapons, leading to an unprecedented level of global military buildup. The fear of nuclear annihilation and the doctrine of mutually assured destruction shaped military strategies and had a lasting impact on international security policies. The Cold War also had economic ramifications. The United States and the Soviet Union competed for influence and sought to spread their respective economic systems, capitalism and communism, across the globe. This led to the creation of economic alliances and aid programs, such as the Marshall Plan, as well as the establishment of the Soviet-dominated Eastern Bloc and the NATO alliance. Furthermore, the Cold War influenced the course of decolonization and independence movements in many countries. The superpowers often supported or opposed regimes based on their alignment with capitalist or communist ideologies, leading to political instability and conflicts in various regions. In addition, the Cold War had cultural and social effects. It fostered a climate of suspicion and fear, which manifested in widespread political repression, surveillance, and the suppression of civil liberties. The ideological struggle between capitalism and communism influenced cultural productions, including literature, art, and film.

Studying and writing essays on the topic of the Cold War is essential for students due to its multidimensional significance. Firstly, exploring the Cold War provides students with a deeper understanding of the complexities of international relations, diplomacy, and ideological conflicts. It offers insights into the strategies, policies, and motivations of the superpowers involved, such as the United States and the Soviet Union. Secondly, writing essays on the Cold War promotes critical thinking and analytical skills. Students are encouraged to examine primary and secondary sources, analyze different perspectives, and evaluate the long-term consequences of historical events. This process enhances their ability to form well-reasoned arguments and develop a nuanced understanding of complex historical phenomena. Additionally, the Cold War has left a lasting impact on society, culture, and global dynamics. By exploring this topic, students can gain insights into the origins of the arms race, the nuclear age, the space race, and the proliferation of proxy wars. They can also examine the impact of the Cold War on civil rights, technological advancements, popular culture, and the formation of alliances.

1. The term "Cold War" was coined by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch in a speech in 1947. It referred to the absence of direct military confrontation between the superpowers, but the ongoing ideological and political struggle between them. 2. The Cold War was characterized by a state of non-military confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union. 3. The space race played a significant role during the Cold War, prompting the establishment of NASA and fueling competition between the superpowers. 4. The proxy wars fought between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War resulted in the loss of numerous lives, with casualties reaching millions. 5. Notable "hot" conflicts of the Cold War period included the Korean War, the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba, and the Vietnam War. These conflicts involved direct military engagement or support from the superpowers, leading to significant human suffering and loss.

1. Gaddis, J. L. (2005). The Cold War: A new history. Penguin Books. 2. Westad, O. A. (2012). The Cold War: A world history. Basic Books. 3. Leffler, M. P. (2008). For the soul of mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War. Hill and Wang. 4. Beschloss, M. R. (1997). Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev, and the U-2 affair. HarperCollins. 5. Zubok, V. M., & Pleshakov, C. (2007). Inside the Kremlin's cold war: From Stalin to Khrushchev. Harvard University Press. 6. Hogan, M. J. (Ed.). (2015). The Cold War in retrospect: The formative years. Oxford University Press. 7. LaFeber, W. (2002). America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-2000. McGraw-Hill. 8. Lynch, T. (2010). The Cold War: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. 9. Matlock, J. F. (1995). Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War ended. Random House. 10. McMahon, R. J. (2003). The Cold War: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.

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Role the United States of America in the World War I Essay

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Introduction

The origins of world war i and its inevitability, maintaining neutrality, the us entering world war i, the treaty of versailles, approving the treaty of versailles.

The First World War is one of the bloodiest events in the history of humankind. Formally, it began in 1914 and ended only four years later, in 1918. The “official” reason for the war is “Murder at Sarajevo,” the killing of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife. The most significant revolutions were committed; more than 10 million soldiers were killed during the years of the Great War. The main result of the battle was the victory of the Entente and the collapse of the four largest empires: the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and German. The essay reveals the topic of the first military conflict taking place on “the world stage.”

The question of the causes of the Great War remains open today; there are many guesses and theories about this topic. President Woodrow Wilson claimed that the war began not for one specific and solid reason but several at once. Nevertheless, the official reason for the outbreak of hostilities is the Sarajevo murder in July 1914, which had a huge resonance. Gavrilo Princip, a member of the “Black Hand” organization of the “Young Bosnia” movement, killed Archduke Frans Ferdinand. At the same time, there were hidden principles and motives – the desire of the leading powers to dominate the world and its reconstruction. The participating countries were divided into opposing camps: “the Entente” and “the Central Powers.” Contradictions were growing between the countries, and they could only win resources from each other.

Certainly, the war was inevitable for several reasons, listed below. Firstly, the differences between the great powers had been growing significantly earlier, until the event in 1914. “The Triple Alliance” and “the Entente bloc” were formed for a “specific” reason. The murder of the Archduke is only an impetus to the outcome of a fierce worldwide struggle. Thus, there was a reason for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia. Secondly, each country wanted domination and appropriated all the reserves and resources by exploiting the colonies (Keene, 2021). It was impossible to get them from the Indians, Africans, and South Americans.

The United States remained neutral until April 6, 1917, when the American people entered the First World War. Most likely, the delaying of military operations would lead to possible adverse consequences for the country. Therefore, it would not have been possible to maintain neutrality in World War I for a long time. First of all, the States did not forgive Germany for sinking the liner “Lusitania” in 1915, when more than 100 American citizens died. In addition, President Wilson threatened the German people to take radical measures. “The opposite side” ignored his message, and the US ships continued to be destroyed. Besides, Germany offered Mexico to join the war against the United States together. Perhaps, the other reason for entering the war was that the United States wanted to become a “world power.” Having entered in 1917, the States had great strength and every chance of success of the plans (Dyer, 2018). Thus, having entered the First World War shortly before the end, the American state became the world leader in all indicators, also thanks to the competent actions of President Wilson.

Becoming the first president in the history of the United States to come to the White House, Woodrow Wilson declared his desire to “make the world safe for democracy.” Thus, the American revolutionaries radically changed the course of the First World War; they laid the principle of being an example for the whole world. The entry of America into the war played a decisive role in stopping the advance of German troops and breaking the enemy’s spirit. After the United States provided humanitarian assistance to the allies at the beginning of the war, they showed moral fortitude in the future. They selflessly participated in hostilities, bringing victory and the onset of peace closer.

The Treaty of Versailles is the most important treaty signed in 1919. The document signed at Versailles put an end to world disagreements and temporarily protected the rest of the world from German hostilities. The results of the First World War dealt a severe blow not only to the defeated but also to the winners. Therefore, some called this peace just a truce because Germany will sooner or later try to take revenge and the Second World War was inevitable (Farmer, 2018). If one talks about the positive impact of the Versailles Peace Treaty, the idea of a democratic world continued to live.

The United States Senate should have approved the Treaty of Versailles for the following reason. America suffered many losses and adverse consequences; many Americans died, giving honor to their state during the Great War. For this reason, the United States should unite with other countries and help prevent another major war. If all the world’s peoples act against the “common enemy,” they will have no reason to create a conflict. Every society will begin to build its new future, to live in peace and harmony, without repressions from empires.

In conclusion, the First World War is a colossal phenomenon in world history, affecting every state and society. This battle marked the beginning of the century of all major revolutions – social, scientific, geopolitical, economic, and ideological. Therefore, the entry of the United States of America helped to radically influence the balance of forces and bring the end of the war closer. The entrepreneurial spirit of the Americans was able to restrain, albeit for a short time, German oppression and the desire to subjugate the whole world.

Dyer, J. (2018). Transforming America: U. S. history since 1877, a war to end all wars: Part 2 [Video]. Web.

Farmer, B. (2018). The Treaty of Versailles and the rise of Nazism. The New American.

Keene, J. D. (2021). The United States and the First World War . Routledge.

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IvyPanda. (2022, November 4). Role the United States of America in the World War I. https://ivypanda.com/essays/role-the-united-states-of-america-in-the-world-war-i/

"Role the United States of America in the World War I." IvyPanda , 4 Nov. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/role-the-united-states-of-america-in-the-world-war-i/.

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Vietnam War Essay | Essay on Vietnam War for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Vietnam War Essay:  The Vietnam War is considered to be one of the most memorable and long-standing conflicts that involved the U.S., with a major role to play in it. The Vietnam War was primarily the consequences of the U.S. anti-communist foreign policy in the year 1960.

It was the military conflict between communist North Vietnam and their allies, against South Vietnam and other countries including America, Australia, Britain, France and New Zealand. Australia’s alliance with the USA was the main reason for the commencement of the Vietnam War. The USA had been a part of the war since 1959 and needed Australia’s assistance. It was a long, costly and divisive conflict. The conflict was intensified by the ongoing cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Vietnam War for Students and Kids in English

We are providing essay samples to students on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic Vietnam War Essay for reference.

Long Essay on Vietnam War 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Vietnam War is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

The Vietnam War is also known as the Second Indo-China War and in Vietnam as the Resistance War Against America. It was the second of the Indo-China Wars that was fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies.

On the other hand, South Vietnam was supported by the United States, South Korea, the Philippines, Australia, Thailand, and the other anti-communist allies were also there for support. The war lasted 19 years and was also called the Cold War by many. The war had direct U.S. involvement, and it ended in 1973.

During World War II, Japanese forces had invaded Vietnam. To fight it off, both Japanese occupiers and French Colonial administration, the political leader Ho Chi Minh formed the Viet Minh, being inspired by the Chinese and Soviet Communism. The Viet Minh was also known as the League for the Independence of Vietnam.

Following its 1945 defeat in World War II, Japan withdrew its forces from Vietnam leaving the French-educated Emperor, Bao Dai in total control. Seeing this opportunity to seize control, Ho’s Viet Minh forces immediately rose to take complete control over the Northern city of Hanoi and declaring it as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with Ho as the president.

After Ho’s communist forces took control over the North, armed conflicts between the northern and the southern armies continued until a decisive victory of Viet Minh took place in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. The French loss at the battle and almost ended the French rule in Indo-China.

Vietnam was split along the latitude known as the 17th parallel based on a treaty signed in July in the year 1954, with Ho in control in the North and Bao in the South. The Vietnam War with active U.S. involvement in 1954 was due to the ongoing conflicts that dated back several decades.

You can now access more Essay Writing on Vietnam War and many more topics.

The Vietnam War led to outcomes like economic downturn and political isolation for Vietnam, which was only supported by the Soviet Union and its allies located in Eastern Europe. It also led to the fall of the South Vietnamese government in 1975 that resulted in a unified communist government in the country. The war also led to the death of almost 2 million Vietnamese civilians, 1.2 million Northern soldiers and many service members. Emigration of Vietnam soldiers took place around the late 1970s from Vietnam.

North Vietnam was communist, whereas South Vietnam was not. North Vietnamese communists and South Vietnamese communist rebels known as the Viet Cong wanted to overthrow the South Vietnamese government together and reunite the country.

South Vietnamese troops waded through the water to flush out communist rebels in 1962. The cost and casualties of the war were too much for America to face; thus, the U.S. combat units were withdrawn by 1973, and in 1975 South Vietnam was fully invaded by the North.

Short Essay on Vietnam War 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Vietnam War is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

The Vietnam War (1954-1975) is referred to the period when the United States and other members of the South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) joined forces with the Republic of South Vietnam to contest communist forces that were comprised of South Vietnamese guerrillas and the regular force units called the Viet Cong.

The United States possessed the largest foreign military presence and had directed the war from 1965 to 1968. Thus, for this reason, Vietnam today is known as the American War. It was considered as the direct result of the First Indochina War between France that claimed Vietnam as a colony and the communist forces which were then known as Viet Minh.

The Vietnam War was one of the longest wars in the history of the United States and was extremely divisive U.S., Europe, Australia and elsewhere. The U.S. suffered a casualty of 47000 being killed in action with the addition of 11000 non-combat deaths. Over 150000 were wounded, and 10000 were missing.

10 Lines on Vietnam War Essay in English

1. The Vietnam War was a conflict between the communist and the capitalist countries and was a part of the Cold War. 2. The Vietnam War was a controversial issue in the United States. 3. It was the first war to feature in live television coverage. 4. The war became extremely unpopular in the United States, and President Nixon sent American soldiers home in 1973. 5. Viet Minh waved their flag at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. 6. The French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu led to the Geneva conference. 7. France began to colonize Vietnam between 1959 and 1962. 8. France also took control over Saigon. 9. Laos was added after the war with Thailand. 10. In 1940 the French Indochina was controlled by Vichy French Government.

FAQ’s on Vietnam War Essay

Question 1. What is the main cause of the Vietnam War?

Answer: Spread of communism during the cold war along with American containment was the main cause of the war.

Question 2. What was the effect of the Vietnam War?

Answer: The most immediate effect was the staggering death toll of almost 3 million people.

Question 3. Why was the Vietnam War fought?

Answer: The USA feared the spread of communism, which led the war to be fought.

Question 4.  When did the military fight occur in the war?

Answer: The fighting occurred between 1957 and 1973.

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Roundtable in Asia Policy 19.3

Confronting the nuclear challenge north korea’s ambitions and regional strategies.

Amid the crescendo of global security challenges, the question remains: what to do about North Korea? This Asia Policy roundtable contains six essays that examine the current state of the challenges North Korea poses to regional and global security from different vantage points.

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North Korea’s Strategic Choices amid Shifting Geopolitics

The gathering storm: a confluence of north korea’s looming crises.

Chung Min Lee

The United States and North Korea: New Threats, New Challenges, and the Need for New Resolve

Evans J.R. Revere

Grappling with Great-Power Competition: China Bandwagons with Petulant North Korea

Andrew Scobell

Going Tactical: North Korea and Two-State Theory in War Strategy

Hideya Kurata

The Korean Peninsula’s New Geopolitics: Why North Korea Is Shifting toward an Alliance with Russia

Artyom Lukin

Introduction

The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK, or North Korea) has ratcheted up its saber-rattling alarmingly over the past few years. It has labeled the Republic of Korea (ROK, or South Korea) a hostile state to be subjugated by war, increased testing of ballistic missiles, adopted a war-focused posture, and warmed ties with Russia, culminating in a new comprehensive strategic partnership agreement between Pyongyang and Moscow in June 2024. More than ever, North Korea has the potential to be disruptive in an already-fraught geopolitical environment. Amid the crescendo of security challenges, the question remains: what to do about North Korea? This Asia Policy roundtable contains six essays that examine the current state of the challenges North Korea poses to regional and global security from different vantage points.

Jenny Town opens the roundtable with a reminder that the North Korea nuclear issue cannot be solved in isolation from broader global realities. Kim Jong-un has demonstrated a canny ability to exploit openings in the geopolitical landscape and to play the major Northeast Asian actors against each other. He used the isolation of the Covid-19 pandemic to reset expectations, restore traditional values—including ideological unity and enemy narratives—and recalibrate Pyongyang’s approach. During this period, North Korea became “one of the first countries to embrace the idea of a new cold war emerging.” The clock cannot be set back on its WMD program; instead, Town argues that getting back to a global disarmament agenda will require political leadership from the great powers to look for geopolitical openings and “change the narrative about what makes countries more secure.”

Chung Min Lee next looks at how the growing WMD threat from North Korea is worryingly combining with a convergence of internal threats: an imploding economy, the weakness of ideological indoctrination among the younger generation, the high risks of succession, and Kim Jong-un’s determination to strengthen his WMD inventory at the expense of the economy and North Korean citizens’ well-being. With North Korea teetering on the edge of simultaneous crises, he argues that the effectiveness of the response will depend on who is in power in Seoul and Washington. In Lee’s words, “the United States and South Korea would do well to prioritize planning and preparing for the ‘gathering storm’ that North Korea presents rather than focus on engagement-building and incentives to return to denuclearization negotiations.”

Evans Revere suggests that given current geopolitical challenges, combined with the upcoming fray of elections in the United States, we can expect Pyongyang to “try to keep the United States and its allies off balance.” Revere demonstrates that nuclear weapons are the best support of Pyongyang’s central goal—the security of the Kim family regime—as well as bolster other related ambitions such as weakening the U.S.-ROK alliance and reducing the U.S. military presence on and around the peninsula. With any future efforts at denuclearization negotiations likely to repeat past failures, the United States and its partners must act carefully but determinedly to up the ante for Pyongyang going forward: “since North Korea’s desire for nuclear weapons derives from its belief that these weapons will bring security and ensure regime survival, U.S. policy should focus on convincing the regime that the opposite is true—that is, that nuclear weapons will only bring the regime’s demise closer.”

Andrew Scobell examines the state of North Korea–China relations, noting that “China has tolerated North Korean episodes of saber-rattling and provocations with fluctuating levels of irritation and ire.” But with Pyongyang yo-yoing its relations with Washington and Seoul since summitry in 2018 and 2019, and more recently improving ties to Moscow, Kim seems to have provoked Beijing into a more active relationship. Scobell describes how Chinese leaders are concerned about maintaining China’s influence amid the “thickening relationship between Russia and North Korea”—a vulnerability that North Korea has adroitly exploited. As a result, Scobell argues that “the least bad policy option for Beijing is to bandwagon with small but geostrategically important Pyongyang against its great-power rivals and allies,” which limits the prospect that China will use its influence for any hoped-for positive containment role in North Korea’s nuclear trajectory.

Hideya Kurata addresses North Korea’s nuclear doctrine in its two military strategies: its “war deterrent strategy” and “war strategy.” His essay focuses on the possibility for a conventional armed conflict between North and South Korea that could escalate with the North’s use of tactical nuclear weapons (TNW). He examines statements by Kim and other key figures in the regime that show the elevation of these weapons in North Korea’s concepts of preemption and escalation. Kurata also evaluates Pyongyang’s recent redefinition of South Korea as an enemy and endorsement of a hostile two-state situation on the peninsula. These nuclear and political postures are closely linked, Kurata argues: “The potential for the deployment of TNWs spills over into the realm of national unification. When South Korea is the target of an attack, as Kim Yo-jong suggested in her April 2022 statement, it can be justified by the assertion that the South is no longer part of the same nation as the North.” As North Korea expands and refines its nuclear arsenal, Kurata stresses the importance of the United States, South Korea, and other allies putting a corresponding escalation ladder in place.

Artyom Lukin studies the regional economic and military balances from the perspective of North Korea, noting that the “overall military balance on the peninsula is developing in a direction that is unfavorable to Pyongyang.” He elaborates that “the DPRK’s ability to deal on its own with the emerging external threats and risks is becoming increasingly strained, primarily due to its limited economic and technological base.” Despite a nuclear capability that places South Korea, Japan, and the United States in reach, North Korea faces a worsening economic situation, deteriorating conventional military capabilities, and a significant imbalance in both these areas with South Korea (as well as South Korea’s latency as a nuclear power and coverage by the U.S. nuclear umbrella). These challenges could be making the North Korean regime feel insecure. As a result, Pyongyang is under pressure to find a powerful ally, and “the only possible political-military ally for the DPRK is Russia.” The renewed alliance gives Moscow “a new lever over Washington, Tokyo, and especially Seoul” and offers the promise of defense industrial support. Pyongyang, for its part, gains prestige, formal security guarantees, and a greater opening for transfers of weapons and expertise. However, the limits to and boundaries of the partnership still remain to be seen.

Taken together, the essays in this roundtable point to a new phase in North Korea’s nuclear posturing and highlight key external relationships. The risks posed by a nuclear-armed North Korea have surged and will require new approaches in management focused on containment rather engagement.

Jenny Town is a Senior Fellow at the Stimson Center and Director of the Stimson Center’s Korea Program and 38 North (United States).

Chung Min Lee is a Senior Fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (United States) and Chairman of the International Advisory Council of the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS). His forthcoming book, tentatively entitled Hard Choices: Correcting South Korea’s Looming Defence Deficit s, will be published by IISS as part of its Adelphi Book series in late fall 2024.

Evans J.R. Revere is a Nonresident Senior Fellow at the Brookings Institution’s Center for Asia Policy Studies (United States). A retired senior U.S. diplomat and career Asia hand, he served as acting assistant secretary and principal deputy assistant secretary of state for East Asian and Pacific Affairs. He serves on the Board of Advisors at the National Bureau of Asian Research and is a Senior Advisor at the Albright Stonebridge Group.

Andrew Scobell is a Distinguished Fellow with the China Program at the United States Institute of Peace (United States). He is also an Adjunct Professor at Georgetown University’s Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service.

Hideya Kurata is a Professor in the Department of International Relations at the National Defense Academy of Japan.

Artyom Lukin is Professor and Deputy Director for Research at the Institute of Oriental Studies—School of Regional and International Studies at Far Eastern Federal University in Vladivostok (Russia).

• North Korea

About Asia Policy

Asia Policy is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal presenting policy-relevant academic research on the Asia-Pacific that draws clear and concise conclusions useful to today’s policymakers. Asia Policy is published quarterly in January, April, July, and October and accepts submissions on a rolling basis. Learn more

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Stars and Stripes: U.S. Military Newspapers in the Library of Congress

Introduction.

• Print Resources - Newspaper Editions of the Stars and Stripes
• Print Resources - Books about the Stars and Stripes newspaper
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Authors: Rodney Katz, Reference Librarian, Humanities and Social Sciences Division (retired)

Created: October 5, 2023

Last Updated: October 9, 2023

This guide is a compilation of Library of Congress holdings of Stars and Stripes newspaper editions, as well as books in the Library's collection that discuss the newspaper and the journalists who accompanied U.S. forces into battle.

In November 1861, Union troops under General Ulysses S. Grant defeated Confederate forces in Bloomfield, Missouri. On November 9, 1861, the first known edition of a newspaper for the troops was published by soldiers from the 18th and 29th Illinois Volunteers on presses owned by the Bloomfield Daily Herald. The name given to this newspaper was Stars and Stripes . Although this Bloomfield edition was a one-issue phenomenon, it started a tradition of soldiers publishing news for the troops.

Sixteen years later, in October 1877, the Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.) initiated a new publication, the National Tribune , a newspaper for Civil War Union veterans; later, the banner Stars and Stripes was added to its masthead. When the G.A.R. ceased publication prior to World War I, a private corporation continued to publish the newspaper for veterans of U.S. armed forces under the same composite name: National Tribune Stars and Stripes (Washington, D.C.).

The first official military publication called Stars and Stripes was published in Paris during World War I (1914-1918) for the American Expeditionary Force (A.E.F.). According to A.E.F. Commander General John J. Pershing, it was intended to provide uncensored news from soldiers and for soldiers. The first weekly edition was published on February 18, 1918 by a staff of eight, and limited to 30,000 copies. Due to its popularity the circulation increased to over half a million and the staff grew to 300. The final edition was published on June 13, 1919.

On June 14, 1919, immediately following suspension of the U.S. military's Stars and Stripes , some of its staff members organized a new Washington-based publishing house known as the Stars and Stripes Corporation. It too, published a newspaper called Stars and Stripes that competed with the National Tribune for the veteran market. This new group, however, was unable to sustain steady subscriptions, and in 1926 it merged with the National Tribune.

During World War II (1939-1945), Stars and Stripes was again chosen as the name of the official U.S. military newspaper for Armed Forces personnel stationed overseas. First published in London, it was administered by the Office of War Information in the newly established Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. Between 1942 and 1945 official editions were published in all European and African theaters of operation, including Italy, Sicily, France, Germany, Egypt, Algeria, and Tunisia. In the Pacific theater, the first edition of Stars and Stripes was published on May 14, 1945 in Honolulu by the Headquarters of the Pacific. Distribution was dependent on the availability of air transports, the only effective means of reaching troops located on hundreds of Pacific islands and in several Asian countries until the end of the war in September 1945.

Since then this same Stars and Stripes has published European editions as well as Pacific editions for the U.S. Armed Forces. These have included editions for U.S. forces in Korea, both during and after the Korean War (1950-1953), the Vietnam War (1963-1975), and the Persian Gulf War (1991). Currently, it is distributed by the Department of Defense on U.S. military bases both in the United States and overseas. The National Tribune , on the other hand, is still privately published by the Stars and Stripes Omnimedia Corporation and is sold primarily to thousands of U.S. veterans and their extended families throughout the United States.

This guide was originally compiled by Rodney Katz and Lawrence Marcus, Humanities and Social Sciences Division, Washington, DC (Research Guide No. 39).

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Manhattan Project Director’s Files Illuminate Early History of Atomic Bomb

Photograph of General Leslie R. Groves used on his Manhattan Project identification badge (Photo from Los Alamos National Laboratory )

Leslie Groves Papers Include Oppenheimer’s “Personnel List” for Staffing New Weapons Laboratory

Groves “Unwilling to Accept … Setback” on Construction Schedule for Secret Plutonium Plant

Post-War Development of Nuclear Reactors Needed to “Maintain the Country in a Supreme Military Position”  

Washington, D.C., August 8, 2024 – On the week of the 79th commemoration of the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, the National Security Archive today publishes a fascinating new collection of papers from the office files of Leslie Groves, the director of the Manhattan Project, the U.S. effort during World War II to develop and produce the world’s first nuclear weapons. Among the newly available records are candid memos and other correspondence from inside the Manhattan Project on the role of nuclear technologies in the post-war environment and the importance of being the preeminent atomic power.

In one revealing document from 1943, Arthur Compton , director of the Manhattan Project’s “Metallurgical Laboratory” at the University of Chicago, considered the post-World War II role of heavy water nuclear reactors. Assuming that production of plutonium-239 would be relevant to the “balance of military power” after the war, Compton wrote that “the post-war situation will still be greatly confused and it will remain of prime importance to maintain the country in a supreme military position.” Keeping the U.S. in its leading role was important to Compton, who was “sure that all of the major powers will be extending themselves to develop the tube-alloy [atomic bomb] program as far as possible.” To help the U.S. maintain its lead and seeing “inherent advantages” in using heavy water in nuclear reactors, Compton believed that their “development will certainly play an important part in this post-war effort.”

Compton’s letter and the other records published today were found in a long-overlooked collection of office files of the Manhattan Project. The two cartons of “Leslie Groves Papers Concerning the Manhattan Project, 1942–1946” were found in Record Group 77, pertaining to the Army Corps of Engineers, held at the National Archives. When it reviewed the collection, the Department of Energy classified at least half of it, but what is available sheds interesting new light on the first two years of the Manhattan Project, including on Groves’ day-to-day decisions and his demanding management style. NARA's National Declassification Center made the Groves collection available in response to an indexing-on-demand request by the National Security Archive.

The collection includes a letter to General Groves from J. Robert Oppenheimer, the recently appointed director of the Manhattan Project’s new weapons laboratory. Oppenheimer’s 9 November 1942 letter included the “personnel list” for the prospective laboratory that he had promised Groves. Oppenheimer listed cadres of experimental and theoretical physicists “who were now working for us” and a wish list of physicists that he hoped to sign on. The names included such prominent scientists as Edward Teller, Hans Bethe, Robert Bacher, Richard Feynman, Enrico Fermi, Robert F. Christy, and Luis Alvarez, all of whom worked at Los Alamos.

With so much on the Manhattan Project already declassified and the subject of numerous books and articles, the documents in the Groves files are unlikely to change the big picture of the weapons design/production work at Los Alamos, the uranium enrichment project at Oak Ridge, or the plutonium production effort at Hanford, WA, all if which were under Groves’ supervision and general direction. Nothing in the new materials sheds any light on plans for the military use of atomic weapons, for example. Nevertheless, the documents provide interesting and useful nuance to important elements of the story, especially on developments at the secret Hanford Engineer Works (HEW) in Washington state, which produced the plutonium used for the Trinity Test and the bomb that exploded over Nagasaki.

The Groves collection contains a variety of documents on HEW and its operations. Colonel Franklin Matthias , HEW’s director, played a key role in its development, including choosing the land that Hanford would occupy. [1] Several items demonstrate the precondition for acquiring these 600,000 acres: the dispossession of farmers and other landowners in the area. Legal challenges to government valuations of these properties also had interesting implications for official secrecy.

Other material documents the challenge of developing and maintaining a huge labor force to construct reactors and reprocessing plants at HEW and how managers tried to improve labor morale, as it was difficult to retain workers workers in a remote area during a wartime situation when the demand for labor was high.

Some of the Groves documents illustrate the task of creating a “government town” and a “company town” in Richland, WA, where managers and scientific workers would be living. One example was the dispute between HEW leaders and the Du Pont Corporation, the contractor for Hanford, over how many bedrooms were appropriate for the new houses. Another challenge for the HEW was ensuring that Richland would have the stores and shops needed to support a growing population. [2]

The new documents also include estimates of the costs of the Hanford facilities and schedules for the production of plutonium and the completion of the work at Hanford. The estimates for Hanford, produced in February 1944, have detailed breakdowns, including the costs of the reactors and the reprocessing plant. In one chart, the estimated price for the three reactors was over $101 million dollars, which in 2024 dollars is in the range of $2 billion. The cost for the reprocessing plants was over $47 million. In 2024 dollars, this is in the range of $960 million. The spending on Hanford was substantial, but 63 percent of the Manhattan Project’s outlays were for the uranium enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge, which cost over $1 billion in 1945 dollars .

Historians have observed that what made General Groves an ideal candidate for directing the Manhattan Project and accomplishing its goals was that he was a “blunt, impatient, and energetic officer with a well-deserved reputation for getting things done.” Moreover, he was skilled in delegating authority to close associates with whom he had worked on earlier projects. Before taking on this task, Groves had helped build the munitions industry and then played a key role in the construction of the Pentagon. [3]

One document in particular sheds light on his management style. In November 1943, the Du Pont Corporation was having trouble finding enough workers to construct the highly secret facilities at HEW. Groves was displeased with the “super-cautious” tone of one of the Du Pont executives, who informed him about a schedule setback for construction at Hanford. But Groves was “unwilling” to accept any delays. His tough response produced a letter from a Du Pont executive who assured the General that the job will be done “at the earliest date possible.” That is what Groves wanted to hear.

It is worth noting that the Du Pont Corporation had been reluctant to get involved in projects like Hanford in the first place, but pressure from Groves and the U.S. Army was unrelenting, and its executives acquiesced. Having little choice in the matter, the Du Pont leadership put up with Groves but not for monetary reward. Having been tagged during the 1930s as “merchants of death” for its World War I munitions sales, Du Pont had become skittish about profiting from war production. To build the facilities at Hanford, Du Pont waived all profits and asked only for reimbursement of expenses on a cost-plus-fixed fee basis. The fixed fee was one dollar. During the war, corporate executives routinely worked for the government on a “dollar-a-year” basis. Such was the political climate of the time. [4]

The Groves files also include records capturing early discussions about the role of heavy water nuclear reactors in the Manhattan Project and in post-war development. While top officials such as Arthur Compton thought that heavy water reactors could fill the gap in the event that HEW’s graphite-moderated reactors did not pan out, that did not ultimately prove to be necessary. Heavy water reactors had low priority during World War II, but Groves approved the deployment of one at Argonne, IL, in part to support work at HEW. Compton also developed suggestions for information exchanges with British and Canadian scientists (who were already producing heavy water and had plans for a reactor).

The Department of Energy classified close to 2,800 pages of the Groves files, presumably on restricted data grounds. The National Security Archive has filed a Freedom of Information Act request for the withheld documents. Most of the withdrawals consist of entire files, sometimes running to hundreds of pages, with exempted folders on topics such as “University of California,” “Hanford: Threshold of an Era,” and “Proposed Program for Metallurgical Project 1945-46.”

The files on the University of California may provide some detail on its institutional relationship with Los Alamos, for which it was the official manager and supplier. The university’s leaders knew nothing about Los Alamos, although they would have to learn enough to buy insurance for the laboratory. If any of the classified files relate to military use of the bomb issues, it will likely take years to find out, given DOE’s underfunded FOIA system.

Note: Thanks to Stephen Schwartz (“ Atomic Analyst ”) for invaluable guidance on adjusting the cost estimates of facilities at HEW into current dollars, and to Alex Wellerstein, Stevens Institute of Technology, for his insights.

The Documents

I. oppenheimer letters.

RG 77, National Archives, Leslie Groves Papers Concerning the Manhattan Project, 1942–1946 (Groves), box 1, 231.001

Appointed by General Groves to direct a weapons laboratory in mid-October 1942, Oppenheimer began an active effort to recruit top scientists. He wrote to Harvard University President James Conant about his interest in acquiring Robert Bacher, then with M.I.T.’s Radiation Laboratory; Franz Kurie at the U.S. Navy’s Radio and Sound Laboratory; and Raymond G. Herb, University of Wisconsin, who was also working at M.I.T.’s Radiation Laboratory. Apparently, neither Herb nor Kurie was interested or recruitable, but Oppenheimer went to great lengths during the months that followed to persuade Bacher to join and was eventually successful. This carbon copy was part of the package that Oppenheimer sent to Groves on 9 November (see Document 2). [5]

Groves, box 1, 231.001

The first page of J. Robert Oppenheimer’s letter to General Groves can be found on the Department of Energy’s OpenNet , but the signed original in the Groves office files may be the only available version with the “personnel list” attached. In the letter, Oppenheimer demonstrated that, by early November 1942, he had been busily recruiting top physicists to staff the new laboratory for “our program” even before there was an agreed site. The “personnel list” that he sent to Groves included a core group of experimental and theoretical physicists “now working for us” and a wish list of others whom he saw as essential. Oppenheimer included a separate page with an “explanatory note” for the lists, with various initials noting who had approved them (either Oppenheimer, Edwin McMillan or Ernest Lawrence). The list also included coding indicating who was “essential” (or just “good”), whether they were “aliens,” and whether they were married or not, among other characteristics. As Oppenheimer noted, the list did not include the “very large” number of graduate and undergraduate students “who are working with these men.”

The list of those “men now working for us” included a few who never worked at Los Alamos, but it included many who played important roles there, including Edwin M. McMillan, John H. Manley, Joseph L. McKibben, Charles P. Baker, Emilio Segre, Robert Serber, Edward Teller and Hans Bethe. The list of “Men Whose Prompt Release We Desire” included some who later joined the project, such as Robert Bacher, Richard Feynman, Enrico Fermi, Robert F. Christy, Herbert L. Anderson and Luis Alvarez. Others proved unobtainable, such as Raymond Herb, Franz Kurie, Percy Bridgman and James L. Lawson. Oppenheimer wrote in gendered terms about those who would staff the new lab; he may have used the word “man,” as was typical then, to describe people in general, but he listed only males for these positions. Yet in those days, men were the ones with standing in the field and the requisite education and skills. A few female scientists would work at Los Alamos.

In his letter to Groves, Oppenheimer mentioned several documents that he had enclosed, one concerning a “major equipment problem,” the other about a “young man who is now in the army and whom we would like to have assigned to us.” Neither show up in the file, but they may be in the classified papers in this collection or in some other group of records altogether.

At the close of the letter, Oppenheimer wrote that he hoped to see Groves in New Mexico. Six days later, on 16 November 1942, when Oppenheimer was traveling in the state with Edwin McMillan and Major John H. Dudley to select a site for the laboratory, Groves joined the group. After visiting Jemez, which they ruled out, they inspected the site of a prep school in Los Alamos, which Groves readily accepted for what became known as “site Y.” [6]

II. Building the Hanford Engineering Works

Document 3A

Groves, box 2, Hanford 620

Document 3B

Constructing the HEW plutonium production complex required thousands of skilled and semi-skilled workers (the peak number of construction workers neared 45,000 ), housing arrangements, and amenities to encourage them to stay on the job (See Document 14). It also required managers to oversee construction along with technicians and scientists to operate the reactors, reprocessing plants and related facilities. They also needed suitable housing, especially if they brought their families. To make that possible, the Manhattan Project paid for new housing in Richland, WA, paying for everything, including lightbulbs and furniture. This was not an easy process because Groves and Du Pont did not agree completely on housing requirements or their costs, among other issues concerning the development of Richland. While Du Pont wanted to support the housing needs of managers and scientists, Groves and Matthias wanted to keep costs down.

In what amounted to a directive to E.B. Yancey, the General Manager of Du Pont’s explosives department, HEW “area engineer” Colonel Franklin Matthias noted that the company wanted to construct the remaining unbuilt houses in three- or four-bedroom units. He cited the company’s “reluctance to build one or two bedroom units for … for remainder of program.” Matthias instructed Du Pont to “fit housing to actual estimated family sizes.” According to Matthias, “peace time experience as to needs for space does not apply now when it is of the utmost importance to conserve manpower and materials.”

In his response, Yancey made the point, among others, that the remainder of the unbuilt houses should have mainly three bedrooms, which he saw as “minimum requirements.”

Backing up Matthias, Groves sent a telegram to Yancey saying that he saw “no reason for not complying” with the request, although he was willing to discuss the matter further.

Groves, box 1, 600.1 Hanford

When the Manhattan Project designated land in Washington state as the site for the Hanford Engineer Works, it began proceedings to acquire large swathes of land, over 400,000 acres—some 600 square miles—so that the secret plants could be built and operated safely and far from the view of unwanted observers. In implementing federal policy to acquire the land and compensate private landholders, Assistant U.S. Attorney General Norman M. Littell played an important role. With political ambitions in Washington state, Littell was concerned about the slow procedures for compensation and wrote that “residents being dispossessed from this big area of our State ... will suffer very considerable hardships from delay in payment.” However, did not take secrecy all that seriously, as he made clear in this comment to Senator Wallgren [D-WA]: “The War Department considers this project to be ‘secret’ and asks for no publicity on it, although I do not quite see how so great an event in the State of Washington, inevitably attended by considerable comment and the conducting of public proceedings in the courts, can in any way be maintained as ‘secret.’”

Littell’s concerns about compensation and his skepticism about secrecy presaged run-ins that he had with Groves and that contributed to a White House decision to fire Littell in 1944. [7] In any event, Littell greatly underestimated the determination of War Department officials to maintain the secrecy of Hanford operations. For example, HEW project director Franklin Matthias successfully appealed to the patriotism of local newspaper editors by asking them to stay clear of stories of government land acquisition, dispossession of farmers, and subsequent construction activities at Hanford. The HEW’s existence remained secret until after the atomic bombings of Japan. [8]

Groves, box 2, 601 (Hanford)

Prepared by some unknown compiler for the use of General Groves and other top officials, this report provided a full picture of the land in Washington state that the War Department acquired for HEW operations. The compendium provided detail on land ownership, population, agriculture, irrigation districts, transportation, schools, and land acquisition procedures. At the end of the compilation is a set of photographs. If the maps mentioned in the report are in the Groves files, the Archive’s FOIA request may ultimately open them up.

The compendium gave an overview of the history, noting the 1942 laws that authorized the Secretary of War to acquire by “purchase, donation, transfer, or condemnation” real property required for military purposes, and citing a 9 February Secretary of War directive to acquire the land. According to the report, “Area A,” consisting of over 193,000 acres, was “situated in the center of the project.” Thus, a few weeks later, on 23 February, the War Department took the first step by filing a petition of condemnation with the U.S. District Court for “immediate possession” and occupation of Area A. The estimated cost to acquire that area was $3.2 million, while the estimated cost for all of the land—areas A, B, C, D, and E—was over $5.1 million. As it turned out, by December 1946, litigation brought by claimants would bring land acquisition costs to over $5 million. Not mentioned in the report was the Native American tribal group, the Wanapum, which had fished in the Columbia River for centuries. [9]

Included in the photos—numbers 11 through 14—is Gable Mountain, the area south of which would become the site of the plutonium separation plant. Other photos depict orchards, some destroyed or abandoned, irrigation ditches, a dam, the village of White Bluffs, and power lines.

Groves, box 1, 600 Hanford

Getting enough workers to build the reactors, reprocessing facilities and other sites at Hanford was a huge task, and General Groves was doubtful that Du Pont executives were handling it with the right attitude. A letter from Walter O. Simon, a Du Pont manager at HEW, irritated Groves because of its “super-cautious” tone and a statement about a schedule “set back” for the construction of Areas 100 (reactor) and 200 (reprocessing plant). Groves refused to accept any delays, and his response produced a somewhat aggrieved letter from Ackart, who blamed “stringent” government controls over labor but assured the General that the job will be done “at the earliest date possible.” The last point is what Groves wanted to hear because, in his view, “it is mandatory on all of us to handle the job in such a way that the important areas will be completed at the earlies possible dates regardless of any previously suggested schedules or any difficulties which may be thrown in our respective ways.”

Prepared by top Groves’ aide Colonel Kenneth Nichols months before any of the reactors or the reprocessing plant were operating, the first memorandum provided estimates for the labor force needed to build “three operating units”—presumably two reactors and one reprocessing plant—and requisite supplies of plutonium at various time intervals. The quickest completion time for the three units, in two-month intervals—would require 48,000 workers. (As it turned out, the peak workforce was around 43,000). The basis for the labor force estimates was a production schedule for 12- or 18-kilogram units of plutonium based on the time intervals. For example, one 12-kilogram “unit” would be produced 13 months after the reactors (pile) started operating, assuming a two-month interval for the completion of reprocessing plants.

Nichols recommended trying to “complete all three units at two-month intervals.” While there was little difference in estimated plutonium output between the 2-4 and the 2-6 schedules compared to 2-2, he favored the “faster schedule” to “provide for contingencies.” By the point where HEW could produce 12 or 18 kilograms of plutonium-239, it would have been close to operating at full capacity because it would already have been producing small amounts.

The minimum critical mass of a sphere of plutonium-239 is around 10 kilograms, so that may have made a capacity to produce 12 kilograms a desired goal. When Nichols prepared his report, weapons designers at Los Alamos were assuming that they could use the plutonium to produce a usable gun-assembly weapon. That proved technically impossible, and Los Alamos found an alternative design based on implosion technology. [10]

Plutonium production later moved beyond Nichols’ estimate. By September 1944, the “B” reactor had reached criticality, and in late December 1944, spent fuel arrived at the “T” reprocessing plant. Soon, Hanford was producing plutonium, making its first delivery to Los Alamos on 4 February 1945. Production grew fairly rapidly, especially after Groves and HEW leaders found ways to accelerate it to provide enough plutonium for a test device and a weapon.. [11] According to a recent estimate , by August 1945, eight months after the reprocessing plant was operating, Hanford had already produced 17.5 kilograms of plutonium, more than enough for the Trinity Test and the bomb that exploded over Nagasaki.

The second memorandum concerned recommendations for the possible suspension of heavy water (P-9) production as a cost-saving measure. That such a significant heavy water production capacity had been built speaks to the huge resources that the Manhattan Project had its disposal but also to the ability of its managers to put on the back burner investments whose importance had lessened. This was implicit in the decisions that Groves made in October 1943 to give low priority to work on a heavy water reactor for producing plutonium. (See Document 17)

Two of the plants recommended for closure, Alabama and Wabash River, had higher production costs compared to the Morgantown plant. The report included contractual data for the Consolidated Mining and Smelting plant at Trail in British Columbia. Operated by the Manhattan Project, the plant’s entire output would be designated for the heavy water research reactor at Argonne, Illinois. [12]

Building a hitherto unknown, complex, and hazardous technology made Du Pont executives “apprehensive” about safety, which had been important to their corporate culture. [13] They wanted to be sure that, if the world’s first nuclear production reactor failed, that nearby workers would be safe. Granville Read sent Groves two sets of maps “indicating the number of people associated with our construction organization and the distance they will be working from the operating units.” According to Read, when the ‘B’ [reactor] unit began operations there would be “approximately 50,000 people within a 12-mile radius of the operating unit.” Read wanted Groves’ assurances that, “under conditions in which the performance of the operating unit did not proceed in a controllable manner and that all of the safety control mechanisms fail to function, the distances given on our maps are adequate protection for the health and safety of the employees involved.” If Groves was confident that the maps were correct, Read asked him to sign one of the sets of maps and return them.

In his reply, Groves wrote that, after consulting scientists, it was their and his opinion that “the distances on the maps ensure proper protection for the health and safety of the employees involved.” Accordingly, he signed the maps, copies of which remain classified in the Groves collection.

Responding to a request from Colonel Nichols, Stowers sent estimates of construction costs at the HEW, including costs for the reactors and reprocessing facilities. The estimates include the costs for each category of installation: $100 for reactors, $200 for reprocessing plants, $300 for fuel fabrication, and $700 for administrative and other offices. One important problem that managers would have to grapple with, if far from systematically, was storing nuclear waste, including the poisonous chemical byproducts from the reprocessing plant. Some of the items in this document may relate to waste management, such as items 282 (reservoir & pump house), 611 (waste settling basin) and 612 (open storage ditch), although their purposes are far from clear. In any event, by 1944, HEW had begun the infamous “ tank farm ” for storing waste from the T plant. [14]

The numbers used in the chart are in 1944 dollars, but it is possible to take into account price level changes since then to get an approximation of the costs in 2024 dollars. This can be done by using Department of Defense deflators. Unfortunately, the earliest military construction deflator provided by Defense is for 1945, but that is reasonably close. In the chart, the estimated cost for the three reactors (“100 area”) was over $101 million dollars. Using the deflators, the estimate in 2024 dollars is in the range of $2 billion. According to the chart, the cost for the reprocessing plants (“SP Process Area”) was some $47 million dollars. Using the deflators, the adjusted cost in 2024 dollars is in the range of $960 million. For the fuel fabrication facility (300), the estimated cost was over $2.1 million. Adjusted for 2024 dollars using Defense Department deflators, the cost for that facility is over $42 million. [15]

Document 10

By March 1944, Groves was greatly concerned about the slow pace of the settlements with property holders in Washington state who had gone to court to seek better compensation for their land. Over 1200 cases remained unsettled, procedures were slow, and Groves was aggrieved by jury decisions to award values “greatly in excess of the Government appraisals.” To protect the HEW’s “essential secrecy,” Groves wanted the cases closed, payments made expeditiously, and juries kept away from the properties at issue. Specifically, he wanted the Justice Department to make arrangements with the Courts to “eliminate the practice of the jury viewing the land” before they made a decision on compensation. Groves did not have his way on this point until March 1945. [16]

Groves sent this memo to General Brehon Somervell, chief of U.S. Army logistics, whose organization was an important source of secret funding for the Manhattan Project and whose role gave him a voice in overall policy, including land settlements. [17]

Document 11

Groves, box 2, 620 Hanford

To accelerate the availability of housing for managers, scientists and others in the HEW’s more permanent staff, Matthias arranged to have 2,300 prefabricated houses built in Oregon and shipped to Richland. [18] To see how the “general living conditions” were compared to other housing, Groves asked Matthias to arrange a survey. The results showed that there were few complaints, but an important difference was that “the prefabricated houses show a considerable higher temperature both inside and outside.” Nevertheless, the prefabricated houses were “more comfortable than the average houses in this area excluding the new houses built.”

Document 12

Read sent Groves a chart with a schedule for the completion of major facilities at Hanford. On the most critical goals, both the B reactor (100 category) and the T reprocessing plant (200 category) were already or nearly completed. The T plant would start operations at the close of September. More reactors and reprocessing plants were to be completed and begin operations during the months after September 1944. Other categories scheduled for completion were offices for maintenance, operations, and administration (700 category) and housing (1100). Also included in the chart was a “force reduction curve” indicating a steady decrease in the HEW labor force in the following months.

The labor force curve is broken down into two parts: with most of the work done on a “fixed fee” basis: the $1 fixed fee and reimbursables. Some work was done on a “lump sum” basis, apparently a specific payment for agreed work, including costs only.

Document 13

Box 1, Groves, 319.1 Inspection of Records

For the towns of Hanford and Richland, the HEW leased concessions to private operators so that they could supply food and other necessities to workers, managers, scientists, and others. In Richland, HEW also made arrangements for a hotel, cafeterias, a coffee shop and a news stand. For concessions, including the hotel, the U.S. government shared in the gross receipts on a percentage basis, while the cafeterias and coffee shop paid monthly rent. The coffee shop operated at a loss but was a necessity for hotel guests and others.

With the Office of Price Administration (OPA) regulating and monitoring prices, Kirkpatrick found that “prices charged in stores at Richland have been in line with OPA ceiling regulations” and had “been competitive with those charged in the general territory.” An exception was the drug store, whose prices were a “little high,” while Safeway prices were “the minimum that can be charged in the area.”

Kirkpatrick recommended reviews of each concession contract with the amount of profit to be determined and earnings carefully watched, but also to ensure that the concessions stayed in place until the HEW’s work ended. Groves approved the recommendations instructing Kirkpatrick to carry them out “insofar as practical.”

Document 14

Poor bookkeeping and excessive profits to a contractor operating games of skill led to an investigation of the Hanford Employees’ Association that HEW managers had established in December 1943. With labor turnover high during the construction phase, managers decided that the creation of an employees’ association was a “must” to improve morale. According to the reports, workers were “leaving their jobs simply because there was no welfare or athletic program to provide entertainment in their leisure hours.” While Du Pont had set up a recreation building with pool tables, bowling alleys and games of skill, among other features, for HEW managers, that was not enough. [19]

The Hanford Employees Association published a newspaper and sponsored nationally known dance bands, baseball games, baseball leagues, football games, concerts and lectures. Apparently, some in HEW management saw bringing in dance bands and professional sports teams as “unwise,” probably for security reasons, but nevertheless necessary for morale purposes.

With construction winding down, Matthias wanted to scale back the Employees’ Association but not eliminate it yet. Du Pont had been involved in managing the association but did not “favor” it, probably because it wanted employees to have responsibility for organizing their social activities. Du Pont was more interested in meeting the needs of the operations personnel who were settling down in Richland. In contrast to “building craftsmen” who were “accustomed to short employment [and] high wages, operations employees were supposedly “older, usually married and possibly with a family of two or three children.” Their “primary interests” were a “home and its maintenance,” which they wanted to look “as nice as possible.” In that context, it “is the Du Pont policy to lend encouragement to and foster the formation of civil groups in the village and the formation of recreation groups by the inhabitants themselves.”

Colonel Antes recommended a “detailed audit of funds and fiscal procedure,” the recovery of excess profits from a contractor, and the termination of the Association when construction ended. Groves signed off on the findings and recommendations.

III. Nuclear Reactors

Document 15

Groves, Box 1, Polymer

The “Met Lab,” directed by Arthur Compton, had demonstrated that a nuclear pile could produce a chain reaction and then be used to produce plutonium. With the Du Pont Corporation secretly building huge piles and reprocessing facilities at Site “W” in Washington state, Compton found supporting roles that “Met Lab” scientists could play, for example, by developing the next generation of nuclear reactors fueled by heavy water (“P-9”). As Compton informed Colonel Nichols, Groves and the Military Policy Committee agreed that a heavy water reactor for producing plutonium would not be authorized “until serious troubles have been encountered with the present graphite plant,” referring to the plans for reactors at the HEW.

Compton relayed what he understood as General Groves’ requirements. They included the construction of a heavy water reactor at the Argonne Forest, outside of Chicago, partly as “a performing experiment designed to test aspects of the W pile at relatively high levels of gamma and neutron radiation.” By June 1944, the Argonne reactor was operational. Groves also requested preparation of a design for a heavy water plant that could produce plutonium. The only reason to build such a plant “during the present war following this design will be presumably in the case of failure of the W plant to give satisfactory results.” Compton observed that “it is hoped that the present war will be over before this investigation can lead to important practical results” that could “have a great effect ... on the post-war military position of the nation.”

The instructions also included what information could or could not be shared with the Canadians, who were already producing heavy water and had plans for developing a heavy water reactor. [20] Compton approved sharing technical data and calculations for developing such reactors and explaining instruments for investigating and constructing heavy water reactors. Not approved was sharing information, such as progress, plans, production capabilities, or technical aspects of the graphite reactor used for producing plutonium or the U.S.’s own plans to produce heavy water.

Document 16

Groves informed Compton that the Manhattan Project’s Military Policy Committee had decided that the “scope of the heavy water work should not be determined” until after a meeting with the British and the Canadians in Montreal. According to Groves, “our effort should not exceed the construction of a lower-powered heavy water pile for use as a general experimental tool” and as preparation should “it become necessary to carry on rapid development” of such a reactor.

Document 17

Writing to Major A.V. Peterson, the District Engineer for Oak Ridge, TN, also known as “Site X,” Groves made detailed comments on Compton’s 22 September memorandum (Document 15). For example, regarding the design of a heavy water reactor for producing plutonium, the “effort should be held to the barest minimum.” On Compton’s point five, concerning information exchanges with the Canadians, none “will be undertaken without my prior approval until such time as the definite producers for interchange are established.”

Document 18

Nichols informed Groves that Major A.V. Peterson had approved Compton’s 22 September memorandum before Groves had sent his comments. He informed Groves that his comments had been “called to the attention of Major Peterson and Dr. Compton with your instructions to modify the program” accordingly.

Document 19

In this letter to Harold Urey, Compton shared his thinking on the role of heavy water reactors for producing plutonium (49) during and after the war. He took it for granted that there would be a directive to prepare a “satisfactory design” for a heavy water reactor and that the design could be used if needed. He further believed that the 1944 design “will go into construction.”

Compton summarized the discussions that he, Groves, Eugene Wigner, Robert Tolman, and Smyth had with the British in Montreal to discuss “problems of mutual interest in connection with the 49 production program.” Concerning the British experiments on the use of heavy water, “it seemed evident that they were not expecting any results ... that would be used in the present war.” In general, the British “see 49 production as an important factor in determining the balance of military power in the post-war world.” They “are getting ready for full-scale activity ... as soon as immediate demands of the present war permit.”

Compton assumed that the U.S. should not supply the British with “larger quantities of our P-9 since this may be become of importance in our war program.” Believing that U.S. heavy water work “must now be organized around the possibility” that the U.S. will need a heavy water reactor to “pinch-hit in our 49 production program,” he was certain that “immediate post-war developments will call for use” of such plants.

Taking the British point about the relevance of plutonium production to the post-war “balance of military power,” Compton wrote that the “the post-war situation will still be greatly confused and it will remain of prime importance to maintain the country in a supreme military position.” Using the British code word for the nuclear weapons program, Compton was “sure that all of the major powers will be extending themselves to develop the tube-alloy program as far as possible.”

Plainly, he wanted the U.S. to maintain its lead. With the “inherent advantages” of using P-9 for nuclear reactors, “its development will certainly play an important part in this post-war effort.” Compton did not specify the advantages but probably had in mind the possibility that using uranium metal to help fuel the reactor would be less costly than using enriched uranium. In any event, Compton would not give “first place” to use of heavy water reactors to produce 49, “but it must be developed as rapidly as possible.”

Document 20

Compton’s thinking about the heavy water and nuclear reactor requirements shifted since he had considered the issue during the fall. With plans for building reactors and a reprocessing plant at Hanford underway, he found “the present outlook … [to be] so encouraging that I see no value in introducing a P-9 pile at this time for the purpose of insurance.” Nevertheless, Compton assumed that, for the post-war period, the U.S. would need to develop reactors, some possibly using heavy water, for power production purposes, including powering U.S. Navy ships. To strengthen their post-war position, he believed that the British would take a similar course.

When, during the post-war period, the U.S. developed reactors for power production, plutonium (“49”) would be a “by-product” of nuclear reactor operations. Compton believed that it would be unwise “to complicate” the initial stages of a power development program to require “49 production as a part of the pile operation.” For example, a “power unit for propulsion of a ship should not need to consider whether the 49 that is produced can be recovered.”

Considering whether the United States should cooperate with the British on developing reactors, Compton opined that the U.S. would have to determine whether it was advantageous or not. For example, he observed that it “has frequently been found desirable for a strong industry to collaborate fully on a research level with a weaker industry in development of new products of common interest.” That, he believed, could apply to a U.S.-U.K. collaboration on “pile programs.”

A related issue was the exchange of information with the British. Compton supported exchanges on the “fundamental physics and chemistry of the pile process,” including the properties of plutonium and other products” as well as “the design and construction of power piles in successful operation, as long as the British are ... actively at work in these fields.” But he ruled out information exchanges on such matters as plutonium separation or decontamination, and the “design and construction of piles in the course of development,” perhaps referring to the developments of reactors for producing plutonium.

[1] . For Matthias’s assignment to the Hanford project and his early role, see Steve Olson, The Apocalypse Factory: Plutonium and the Making of the Atomic Age (New York: W.W. Norton, 2020), 1-2, 65-69.

[2] . For useful information on the development of Richland, see Olson, The Apocalypse Factory, 107-109. Olson further observes that Richland was a “detention center”, which may be too strong, but certainly, the residents were under steady surveillance, as he demonstrates.

[3] . Quotation from J. Samuel Walker , Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, Third Edition, 2016), 11; Robert S. Norris, Racing for the Bomb: General Leslie R. Groves, The Manhattan Project’s Indispensable Man (South Royalton, VT: Steerforth Press, 2002), 5-6. See also Barton J. Bernstein, “Reconsidering the ‘Atomic General’: Leslie R, Groves,” The Journal of Military History (2003): 883-920.

[4] . Norris, Racing for the Bomb , 212; Vincent Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb , (Washington, D.C.; U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1985), 106; Olson, The Apocalypse Factory , 60.

[5] . This letter, found in an Oppenheimer collection at Los Alamos National Laboratory archives, is cited by James Hershberg in James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima in the Making of the Nuclear Age (New York: Knopf, 1993), at page 807, note 48.

[6] . Jones, Manhattan , 83; Kai Bird and Martin Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York: Vintage, 2006), 205-207.

[7] . Norris, Racing for the Bomb, 218-221.

[8] . Olson, The Apocalypse Factory , 65, 68.

[9] . Jones, Manhattan , 342; Olson, The Apocalypse Factory , 69-70.

[10] . Norris, R acing for the Bomb , 361-363.

[11] . Olson, The Apocalypse Factory , 111; Norris, Racing for the Bomb, 368-376.

[12] . Stephen A. Andrews, Madison T. Andrews & Thomas E. Mason, “Canadian Contributions to the Manhattan Project and Early Nuclear Research,” Nuclear Technology 207 Supplement 1 (2021): S 141.

[13] . Barton C. Hacker, The Dragon’s Tail: Radiation Safety in the Manhattan Project, 1942–1946 ( Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 53.

[14] . For early measures taken to store nuclear waste, see Olson, The Apocalypse Factory , 104-106.

[15] . To make these approximations, the editor used the deflator for military construction in 1944 found in the 1986 edition of the Defense Department’s “National Defense Budget Estimates” (see page 50), generally known as the “Green Book”. Using the .1195 deflator made it possible to formulate numbers in 1986 dollars. To adjust those numbers in 2024 dollars, the current version of the “Green Book” includes a .4126 deflator for military construction as of 1986. It is also possible to develop numbers by using the Office of Management and Budget’s Historical Tables , especially table 10-1, but it is based on fiscal year 2017, so the resulting numbers do not reflect major changes in price levels since then.

[16] . Jones, Manhattan , 342.

[17] . Jones, Manhattan , 116, 338.

[18] . Carl Abbott, “Building the Atomic Cities: Richland, Los Alamos, and the

American Planning Language,” in Bruce Hevly and John M. Findlay, eds., The Atomic West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998), 96

[19] . For morale issues, see Norris, Racing for the Bomb , 223, including note 93 on page 621.

[20] . Stephen A. Andrews et al., “Canadian Contributions to the Manhattan Project,” S131-S146.

Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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