essay on religion and politics upsc

Religion and Politics - Essay, UPSC MAINS | Course for UPPSC Preparation - UPPSC (UP) PDF Download

Religion and Politics

(1) Opening    —    Misuse of religion by the politicians.

(2) Body    —    Quote W.C. Banerjee.

    —    Situation today is far more frightening than it was in August ‘1947.

    —    Historical perspective.

    —    Have to fight religious bigotry and fanaticism.

    —    Example of Wars of religion.

    —    Secularisation of Culture in France.

(3) Closing    —    The tradition of religious toleration is the dominant tendency of Indian civilization.

  —    The state, constitutional provisions, legislations and political movements should preserve this tradition.

Since independence, our nation has been witnessing numerous communal riots including the one as the aftermath of Ayodhya vandalism,Bombayblasts,Godhra,Gujrat riots,Muzzafarnagar,Malda and Kashganj . The ideology of Gandhi was something different, i.e. Ram Rajya. But today’s politicians have  misused the religion blatantly for their political gain. They want to have vote bank out of religion shattering the sanctity of sacred hearts.

The first President of Indian National Congress, W.C. Banerjee, a Christian, laid down in his address (December 1885) the Congress objective as “the eradication, by direct friendly, personal intercourse of all possible race and creed of provincial prejudices amongst all lovers of our country, and the fuller development and consolidation of the sentiments of national unity”. National unity remained the goal of India’s struggle for freedom.

Inspite of the ceaseless striving of several generations of our countrymen the goal has remained illusive. Twice has this sub-continent been subjected to partition first the division of India and then the break-up of Pakistan. Although we gave ourselves a constitutional framework for promoting national unity and all-round development, we have witnessed, in the last four decades, separatist movements inspired by communal, sectarian and ethnic considerations. On top of this came the organised vandalism in Ayodhya which was the result of the mounting communal frenzy.As per data shared by Home Affairs,atleast 111 people were killed and 2384 others injured in 822 communal incidents in the country in 2017.

The aftermath of the demolition of the Babri Mosque produced fearful communal riots in Surat, Ahmedabad, Bhopal and Bombay and a series of terrible retaliatory bomb blasts designed to shatter public confidence and spread chaos.Godhra incident and the riot that followed in Gujarat was shameful. The riots and the blasts revealed the close nexus between the expanding world of crime and the forces of communal disharmony. The fabric of the ordered state is virtually in taters.

The situation today is far more frightening than it was in August 1947. For then the country possessed a strong readership which had a powerful hold on the popular imagination. There was the mighty Congress organisation to back it. That is why the Leadership and the party were able to steer the ship of state in the stormy waters of the partition days. Now there is no such hope.

The real problem is the difficulty of reconciling the ideal of secular state with the intractable reality. Another complication is the unique historical evolution of the national movement in India. Those leaders of freedom struggle who tried to transform the Indian National Congress into a dynamic mass organisation, were inspired by the religious ideal, not in the sense of a narrow creed on a system of rituals, but religion as a moral imperative.

Everybody knew that Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the most popular Indian leader before the rise of Mahatma Gandhi, was inspired by the Vedic religion and the teachings of Upanishads and Geeta. Tilak said that a nation consists of many elements: ethnology, language, literature and so on. “Patriotism in India involved welding of races. The limits should be widened and the ideal of composite patriotism attained.” And yet Tilak did not hesitate to use instruments like the observation of Ganesh Utsava and Shivaji Jayanti celebrations in order to arise popular interest in the cause of Swaraj.

Tilak undoubtedly drew inspiration from the regional history of Western India as also the ancient ideals of India. He used the Maratha history and Hindu traditions as stepping stones to the ideal of composite Indian nation. The Congress Democratic Party’s Manifesto (1920), which he finalised before his death, is a wholly secular document. There is not the ‘slightest trace of religious bigotry in it. It advocates the removal of all civic, secular or social disabilities based on caste or custom. It expresses belief in religious toleration and improvements of relations among followers of different religions.

Aurobindo Ghosh, who did so much to awaken political consciousness in Bengal, was wholly inspired by the religious ideal—as distinguished from religious bigotry and fanaticism. Vivekanand, whose influence was quite widespread and whose career can not be conceived without its religious basis, thought that even the concept of religious toleration was inadequate and advanced the doctrine of acceptance of all religions.

G K Gokhale, the liberal on whom even Jinnah looked upon as leader, often lamented the fact that he did not possess the faith of M G Ranade, was profoundly influenced by the normal aspect of religion. “Remunication as the highest form of religion” appealed to his disciple, Mahatma Gandhi.

Gandhi’s philosophy of religion and politics did not involve the Mahmud Gazni-Auganzeb policy of destroying temples and breaking idols nor the Sangh Pariwar’s programme of destroying three or three thousand or thirty thousand Muslim shrines erected on former Hindu places of worship and build Hindu temples thereon. His concept of religion and Ram Rajya was a moral concept: “I cannot conceive politics as divorced from religion. Indeed, religion should pervade all of our actions. Here religion does not mean sectarianism. It means a belief in ordered moral government of the universe. It is not less real because of its being unseen. This religion transcends Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, etc. It does not supersede them. It harmonises them and gives them reality.”

Another personality who powerfully influenced our national movement was Jawaharlal Nehru. He was quite unlike Tilak and Gandhi. His inspiration did not derive from religion. He was an ardent champion of science and modernity “interested in this world, in this life, not in some other world or a future life.” And yet he wrote that the environment in which he grew took atma, future life Karma theory, and reincarnation for granted and that he had been affected by it and was in a sense favourably disposed towards these assumptions.” He confessed that “ethical approach to life” had a “strong appeal” for him and notwithstanding the powerful effect of Marxist Teachings on him “a vague idealist approach something rather akin to the vedanta approach”, crept into his mind.

When one talks of separating religion from politics, the proposal comes of against the whole historical development of the freedom struggle. We should avoid this terminology. It will not be accepted the legislation for the basis of the American concept of separation of Church and State. The context in Western Europe and America was different. Here there is no established church. The problem here is misuse of religions in political life. What needs to be fought is religious bigotry and fanaticism harnessed for the purpose of expanding one’s political base and garnering votes. It is this menace that needs to be curbed.

For several centuries Europe was riven by religious controversies and conflicts. Inquisition was instituted. Dissenters were burnt alive at the stake by the established churches and the state. Freedom of conscience was under total eclipse. Ultimately armed conflict broke out which is known in history as the Wars of Religion. The German lands were devastated The 

treaty of Westphalia at last ended these wars. “The right to change religion was permitted, but in the event of such a change the minorities of the other faith were to be tolerated.” A prince who changed his religion was to permit Protestantism and Catholicism to exist side by side.

In France there was progressive secularisation of culture. But Louis XIV imbued with the spirit of “one God, one king, one faith” persecuted the Huguenots and forced them to become Catholics or leave the country. Centuries earlier, in Spain the Jews and the Muslims had been given the same choice. Religious uniformity was enforced. In brief the age of Protestant Reformation was an age of persecution. Both Protestants and Catholics believed that they were in possession of the sole objective truth. Luther, himself a rebel, also permitted religious persecution. Both Protestants and Catholics believed that “Persecution of heretics was pleasing to God”, Calvin went one step further; he made heresy “Punishable by Death”. In England some dissenters, called Puritans, migrated to America in search of religious freedom.

Soon after the Mahatma’s assassination, a motion on communalism was adopted by the Constituent Assembly (Legislative) on the initiative of Ananthasayanam Ayyangar on April 3, 1948. The text of the resolution is as under:

Whereas it is essential for the proper functioning of democracy and the growth of national unity and solidarity that communalism should be eliminated from Indian life, this Assembly is of opinion that no communal organisation, which, by its constitution or by the exercise of discretionary power vested in any of its officers and organs, admits to, or excludes from, its membership persons on ground of religion, race and caste or any of them, should be permitted to engage in any activities other than those essential for the bonafide religious, cultural, social and educational needs to the communities and that all steps, legislative and administrative, necessary to prevent such activities should be taken.

This decision remained unimplemented. The oldest organisation, Congresss has been wooing to the various communal parties on several occasions but so far nothing such ideology is seen within the Congress to outlaw the religion from politics.

In India despite the occasional persecution of Jains, Buddhists and Vaishnavites, the tradition of religious toleration was the dominant tendency of Indian civilisation. Even the intolerance of idol-breaking Muslim rulers was mitigated by practical considerations and rulers like Akbar and Prince Dara, and saints like Kabir and Nanak preached universal harmony. What we need in India today is not the Western doctrine of separation and divorce but of toleration and equal respect or what Vivekananda called acceptance. The state, constitutional provisions, legislation and political movements here should preserve this tradition, and supress religious bigotry and communal fanaticism with a strong hand.

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“Religion in India: Tolerance and Segregation”, a Pew Center report on religious attitudes in India stated that Indians value religious freedom, not integration.

• It is a major survey of religion across India.
• It is conducted by Pew Research Center.
• It is based on nearly 30,000 face-to-face interviews of adults conducted in 17 languages between late 2019 and early 2020.

Key Findings

• Religious Freedom: The report finds that Indians of all these religious backgrounds overwhelmingly say they are very free to practice their faiths. 

Image Courtesy: TH

• Tolerance: Indians see religious tolerance as a central part of who they are as a nation. Across the major religious groups, most people say it is very important to respect all religions to be “truly Indian.” Tolerance is a religious as well as civic value. 
• Not only do a majority of Hindus in India (77%) believe in karma, but an identical percentage of Muslims do, too. 
• A third of Christians in India (32%) – together with 81% of Hindus – say they believe in the purifying power of the Ganges River. 
• In Northern India, 12% of Hindus and 10% of Sikhs, along with 37% of Muslims, identity with Sufism, a mystical tradition most closely associated with Islam. 
• And the vast majority of Indians of all major religious backgrounds say that respecting elders is very important to their faith.
• The majority of Hindus see themselves as very different from Muslims (66%), and most Muslims return the sentiment, saying they are very different from Hindus (64%). 
• There are a few exceptions: Two-thirds of Jains and about half of Sikhs say they have a lot in common with Hindus. But generally, people in India’s major religious communities tend to see themselves as very different from others.
• Affinity to Own Group: Indians generally stick to their own religious group when it comes to their friends. Fewer Indians go so far as to say that their neighbourhoods should consist only of people from their own religious groups. Still, many would prefer to keep people of certain religions out of their residential areas or villages.
• Indians’ concept of religious tolerance does not necessarily involve the mixing of religious communities. 
• Indians seem to prefer a country more like a patchwork fabric, with clear lines between groups.

• Being Hindu important to Indian identity for many Hindus: Most Hindus think two dimensions of national identity – being able to speak Hindi and being a Hindu – are closely connected. An identical percentage of Muslims and Hindus (65 per cent each) saw communal violence as a very big national problem.
• The Partition sentiment: The survey found that while Sikhs and Muslims were more likely to say the Partition was a ‘bad thing’, Hindus were leaning in the opposite direction.
• Caste is another dividing line in Indian society, and not just among Hindus: Religion is not the only fault line in Indian society. In some regions of the country, significant shares of people perceive widespread, caste-based discrimination.
• Religious conversion in India: This survey finds that religious switching, or conversion, has a minimal impact on the overall size of India’s religious groups. Other groups display similar levels of stability. Changes in India’s religious landscape over time are largely a result of differences in fertility rates among religious groups, not conversion.
• Religion is very important across India’s religious groups: The vast majority of Indians, across all major faiths, say that religion is very important in their lives. And at least three-quarters of each major religion’s followers say they know a great deal about their own religion and its practices. 

(Image Courtesy: PewForum )

• India’s massive population is diverse as well as devout.
• Not only do most of the world’s Hindus, Jains and Sikhs live in India, but it also is home to one of the world’s largest Muslim populations and to millions of Christians and Buddhists.

Source : TH

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Last updated on September 17, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

This article will help you to know more about the relevance of secularism in our society.

The term “Secular” refers to being devoid of religion or being apart from it.

Secularism refers to the treatment of religion as a totally private concern, separating it from the political, economic, social, and cultural aspects of life.

A secular person is one who does not attribute moral principles to a particular religion. His logical and scientific thinking produces his values.

It placed a strong emphasis on the separation of the state and religion, as well as on the complete freedom and acceptance of all religions.

Additionally, it advocates for nondiscrimination and impartiality based on faith, as well as equal chances for adherents of all religions.

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Philosophy of Indian Secularism

The term “secularism” is similar to the Vedic idea of “Dharma nirapekshata,” or the state’s disregard for religion.

The paradigm of secularism is adopted by Western civilizations, where the government is completely distinct from religion.

There is no recognized state religion in India. However, a person’s religion may have various personal rules depending on issues like marriage, divorce, inheritance, and alimony.

Indian secularism aimed to achieve the peaceful coexistence of various religions, but it was not an end in and of itself.

Indian philosophical concept refers to equal respect for all religions. It derived from the Vedic idea of “Sarva Dharma Sambhava” (meaning, “that the endpoint of the pathways pursued by all faiths is the same, though the paths themselves may be different”)

This idea, known as “Positive Secularism,” which embodies the dominant spirit of Indian culture, was adopted and pushed by individuals like Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi.

Secularism in Indian History

Secular traditions are deeply ingrained in Indian history.

The foundation of Indian culture is the synthesis of numerous spiritual traditions and social movements.

Emperor Ashoka was the first great emperor to declare that the state would not persecute any religious denomination.

In his 12th Rock Edict, Ashoka urged people to adopt a spirit of profound respect for all religious factions in addition to tolerating them.

The pursuit of religious tolerance and the coexistence of various faiths persisted even after the arrival of Jainism, Buddhism, and later Islam and Christianity on Indian territory.

The Sufi and Bhakti traditions in medieval India created a loving and peaceful link between members of many communities.

Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, Baba Farid, Sant Kabir Das, Guru Nanak Dev, Saint Tukaram, and Mira Bai, among others, were major luminaries of these movements.

In medieval India, Akbar’s rule was characterised by religious tolerance and freedom of worship. Numerous Hindus served as his ministers, and he abolished Jizya and prohibited forced conversions.

His proclamation of “Din-i-Ilahi,” or the Divine Beliefs, which combined components of both Hindu and Muslim faith, was the most obvious manifestation of his tolerance policy.

In addition, he emphasised the idea of “sulh-i-kul,” or religious harmony and peace.

He even sponsored a number of theological discussions that took place at the Hall of Worship’s “Ibadat Khana,” featuring theologians from the Brahmin, Jains, and Zoroastrians.

The Indian liberation movement also contributed to the strengthening and enrichment of secularism, despite the fact that the British had a divide-and-rule policy in the name of many religions. The partition of Bengal, the establishment of separate electorates, and communal awards as examples of how Britishers fostered religious diversity in Indian society.

However, the secular culture and ethos that defined the Indian freedom movement were present from the beginning.

The liberals who participated in the early stages of the Indian freedom movement, such as Sir Feroz Shah Mehta, Govind Ranade, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, largely adopted a secular political philosophy.

There were many provisions on secularism in the constitution that Pandit Moti Lal Nehru drafted in 1928 while serving as the chairman of the   Nehru Committee , such as: “There shall be no state religion for the commonwealth of India or for any province in the commonwealth, nor shall the state, either directly or indirectly, endow any religion with any preference or impose any disability on account of religious beliefs or religious status.”

While J. L. Nehru’s secularism was based on a dedication to scientific humanism tinted with a progressive perspective of historical development, Gandhiji’s secularism was founded on a commitment to the brotherhood of religious communities based on their respect for the pursuit of truth.

Secularism and the Indian Constitution

All the fundamental ideas of secularism have been explicitly incorporated into the constitution’s different clauses.

The term “secular” was inserted into the preamble of the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976.

“India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic.”

It highlights the fact that India is a constitutionally secular nation without a State religion. And that the state must respect all religions equally without favouring or patronising anyone in particular.

Other constitutional provisions enlarge the concept of secularism:

Article 14  grants equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all

Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

Article 16 (1) guarantees equality of opportunity to all citizens in matters of public employment and reiterates that there would be no discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth and residence.

Article 25 all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practise and propagate religion.

Article 26 every religious group or individual has the right to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes and to manage its own affairs in matters of religion.

 Article 27 the state shall not compel any citizen to pay any taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution.

Article 28 allows religious instruction to be given at educational institutions run by various religious groups.

Article 29 Protect the cultural identities of minority

Article 30 Protect the educational rights of all minorities

Article 51A to uphold peace, the spirit of fraternity, and the rich history of our composite culture.

Indian vs Western Secularism Model

Over time, India has created its own distinct idea of secularism that, in the following ways, distinguishes it from the similar western concept:

According to the western concept of secularism, the “State” and the “religion” have their own distinct domains and may not interfere with one another’s business.

Thus, the full separation of religion and state is required by the western concept of secularism.

However, there is no “wall of separation” between religion and the State in India, either in law or in reality.

In India, both the state and religion are permitted to interact and interfere in one another’s business as long as they do so within the limits that have been set by law and the courts.

In other words, Indian secularism does not call for the complete exclusion of religion from the state.

According to the western model, religious communities’ educational institutions cannot get any financial assistance from the state.

All religious minorities in India have the legal right to create and maintain their own educational institutions, with possible state support.

In the western paradigm, the state stays out of religious concerns until they are conducted within the bounds of the law.

On the other hand, Indian secularism requires the state to intervene in religion in order to purge its vices.

India has stepped in by implementing laws that forbid the customs of Sati, or the burning of widows, dowries, animal and bird sacrifice, child marriage, and denying Dalits access to temples.

Since no public policy can be created in the west on the basis of religion, the government is completely cut off from the religious activities and practises of its people.

In India, the government has a policy of establishing Wakf Boards, Departments of Religious Endowments, etc. Additionally, it is involved in choosing the Trustees for these boards.

Threats to Secularism

Despite the fact that the Indian Constitution declares the state to be completely neutral toward all religions, our society is deeply religious.

Religious persecution and inter-religious dominance are displayed in our society when one community or its members are discriminated against by another community or its members because of their religious identity.

Indian secularism is in danger as a result of the blending of religion and politics, or the mobilisation of votes based on fundamental identities like religion, caste, and race.

A communal politics is one that attacks rational ideals, communalizes social space, propagates myths and prejudices about minorities, and engages in divisive ideological propaganda and politics.

Inter-religious conflict results from the competitive politicisation of other groups as a result of the politicisation of any one religious organisation.

Communal riots are one of the signs of communalism. The secular foundation of Indian polity has shown to be seriously threatened by communalism in recent years as well.

In recent years, the rise of Hindu nationalism has led to mob lynchings based on the mere suspicion of eating meat and butchering cows.

In addition to this, forced slaughterhouse closures, efforts against “love jihad,” forced reconversion of Muslims to Hinduism (Ghar- wapsi), etc. all serve to strengthen communal tendencies in society.

The establishment of an Islamic State based on sharia law is promoted by Islamic fundamentalism or revivalism , which is directly at odds with ideas of a secular and democratic state.

Way Forward

Cooperation towards “mutual enlightenment” is one method for decreasing religious prejudice. Only through education can people’s mindsets be changed. To ensure that young people receive a valuable education that helps them understand and respect both their own and other religions’ traditions in the nation.

A shared set of values or a framework that enables the coexistence of the various groups is also required.

The establishment of a supportive atmosphere and the development of a socio-political consensus are necessary for the implementation of social reform initiatives like the Uniform Civil Code.

Article Written By: Aryadevi E S

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Critically examine machiavelli's views on religion and politics. (upsc cse mains 2018 - political science and international relations, paper 1).

• Renaissance, Luther, Calvin and Machiavelli are almost contemporary. Both democracy and individualism are the products of the Renaissance. But simultaneously despotism emerged along with them. Church and papacy were forced to surrender their supremacy and dictatorial manner or functioning and the vacuum created in this way were forthwith filled up by the rise of monarchy. The dominating power of kings became absolutely prominent. Out of democracy, individualism and despotism, only despotism was able to draw special attention of Machiavelli.
• Machiavelli made a clear distinction between distinctions between politics on the one hand and religion and ethics on the other and in doing so he has accorded subordinate position to the latter. He ignores the ethical purpose of the state. To him state is not a means but an end in itself with its own interest. The interest of the state justifies everything. The state has no ethics. State actions are not to be judged by individual ethics. In exercising political power, Machiavelli opines that a ruler should give priority to what is good for the state rather than what is moral or immoral. A ruler should not lag behind even in the employment of violence, cruelty and bad faith. Appreciating the good qualities of a ruler, Machiavelli emphasized that he cannot part with the bad means to be an able leader. He says public morality need not necessarily be identical with the private morality because the ends of public morality may not necessarily be identical with those of private morality. Hence Machiavelli prescribed double standard of conduct for the ruler and for the individual citizens.
• Machiavelli was clear in his conception of the relationship between religion and politics. He opined that religion should be exploited for the sake of political expediency. Otherwise, religion and politics should be kept separate, religion always being subordinated to politics. A ruler has supreme powers, and he is above the norms of moral or religious tenets. Thus, Machiavelli gives greatest importance to political power and political expediency. He holds that religious and ethical principles have only a secondary role and in no way, they should be a hindrance to the exercise of political power.
• Machiavelli thus invented secular politics by liberating it from religion and natural law. He said religion cannot influence politics and the church cannot control the state. In fact the sovereign state enjoys absolute power over all individuals and institutions. As such the church is subordinate to the state. Thus Machiavelli separated religion from politics and paved way for emergence of the secular state.

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Religious Freedom – USCIRF Report and India

From Current Affairs Notes for UPSC » Editorials & In-depths » This topic

In a recent development, the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), has recommended that the State Department put India on a list (‘Countries of Particular Concern’ or CPCs) for the worst violations of religious freedoms in 2020. The recommendation brings to the limelight the issue of freedom of religion and what is its position in the Indian territory. The recent passage of anti-conversion laws by various State governments in India has further helped in highlighting the issue. With the rise in encroachment on people’s religious freedom by various state and non-state actors, the issue has become a grave matter of concern. The issue not only raises numerous questions about various rights available to people but also shows how such rights are under threat in contemporary times.

This topic of “Religious Freedom – USCIRF Report and India” is important from the perspective of the UPSC IAS Examination , which falls under General Studies Portion.

What is religious freedom?

• Religious freedom refers to the freedom of individuals, a group or a particular organisation to profess, practice and propagate a particular religion. 
• It also includes the right to believe, or not to believe, in religious truths. 
• It gives people the right to live, speak, and act according to their beliefs peacefully and publicly.

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Why is it important?

• Religious freedom allows people to practice and propagate any religion of their choice without any fear. 
• It prevents the majority from imposing its thoughts and beliefs on the minority. 
• It also prevents an individual or a community from any kind of discrimination based on religion and helps them live a dignified life.

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Religious freedom and India

• India with its vast population is a multi-religious country.
• Being a land of diversity, it is the birthplace of four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism.
• It is also home to a large Muslim population. It also includes a minority of the Christian population as well.
• Although religious discrimination and intolerance of social dissent are hardly new to India yet it is an officially secular nation. 
• India has a long tradition of religious tolerance (with periodic and sometimes serious lapses), which is protected under its constitution.
• Indian people have a strong faith and dependence when it comes to their religion as they perceive that religion adds meaning and reason to their lives.
• In recent times, religious freedom in India has been under threat due to various reasons. It is noticed that freedom of religion and freedom of expression have been on conflicting terms in recent times in India.
• This can be attributed to the multi-cultural and multi-religious nature of Indian territory.
• Hence, it is important to understand the very nature of the demography of India.

India’s religious demography

• The population of approximately 1.3 billion includes a Hindu majority of about 80%.
• A large Muslim minority of some 185 million (about 14%; India’s Muslim community is the world’s third-largest, after Indonesia’s and Pakistan’s).
• Christians account for more than 2% of the population (roughly 30 million) and Sikhs slightly less than 2% (about 22 million).

Religious freedom in India – Evolution

• Freedom of religion in India was there since ancient times. The plural nature of Indian society and freedom of all the religions was encapsulated in the inscriptions of Ashoka where he writes that he honoured all the religions.
• Although during the medieval period, few religious communities especially Hindus were persecuted yet the policies of Emperor Akbar and few others ensured that there was respect and tolerance towards all the religious groups.
• Under the Sikh empire, the Sikh rulers built mosques and temples for subjects of various sects.
• During the British era too, the British avoided meddling with the religious freedom of its subjects although it tried to reform the existing orthodox practices with the help of a few Indians that harmed the various marginalised sections of society.
• India has been so tolerant of all the religions that many religious groups (Parsis, Tibetan Buddhists, etc.) have sought refuge in India time and again whenever they faced a threat to their religious freedom.
• Freedom of religion to Indians was guaranteed explicitly when India acquired independence, with the formation of the Indian constitution.

Religious freedom protections and India

• The state will not identify itself with or be controlled by any religion.
• While the state guarantees to everyone the right to profess whatever religion one chooses to follow, it will not accord any preferential treatment to any of them.
• No discrimination will be shown by the state against any person on account of his religion or faith.
• The right of every citizen, subject to any general condition, to enter any offices under the state, no matter which religion does he/she follow.
• The Indian Constitution guarantees various fundamental rights to the citizens. One of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution also includes the right to freedom of religion.
• Freedom of conscience and free profession of religion (Article 25).
• Freedom to manage religious affairs (Article 26).
• Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion (Article 27).
• Freedom to attend religious instructions (Article 28).
• The freedom of religion guaranteed under the Indian Constitution is not confined to its citizens but extends to all persons including an alien.
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights (freedom of religion or belief is guaranteed by Article 18).
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Article 18 guarantees freedom of religion or belief).
• Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief.
• Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious, or Linguistic Minorities,1992.

Challenges to religious freedom in India

• Communalism – The ideology of communalism holds that one particular community is superior to another one. Such ideologies threaten the religious freedom of fellow citizens or the group which is the target of violence and discrimination. Communalism in India is not new and is rising incessantly given the rise in incidents of riots and killing at various places in India.
• Anti-conversion laws – The passage of anti-conversion laws by various states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are argued to be contrary to the constitution as they are a hindrance in the “propagation” of one’s religion. They are also considered to be contrary to the idea of freedom of speech and expression.
• Rising vigilantism – Recent cases in various States of cow vigilantism and attack on fellow citizens based on affiliation to a certain religion point to the rising intolerance among people and violent curtailment of the right to freedom of religion and its practice.
• Digital hatred – The instruments of freedom of speech and expression like social media have also become spaces where misinformation and hate speech based on religion are flourishing leading to killings and riots. Although widespread communal violence and rioting have taken place in the past, social media amplify the speed and force of messages that advocate or condone abuse against minorities and allow incendiary speech to spread like wildfire.
• Politics – Politics over religion and politicians supporting a particular religion giving rise to hatred against other communities eventually curtail the religious freedom of the other people living in a multi-religious society like India. Political leaders exploit religion for electoral gain and ultimately promote hate crimes.

The USCIRF Report 2021 and India

• USCIRF(United States Commission on International Religious Freedom is an independent, bipartisan U.S. federal government commission created by the 1998 International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA).
• It monitors the universal right to freedom of religion or belief abroad.
• USCIRF uses international standards to monitor religious freedom violations globally.
• As per the latest recommendations, India to be designated as a “country of particular concern”.
• In its report, USCIRF said that religious freedom conditions in India “continued their negative trajectory”.
• It attributed the negative trajectory of religious freedom in India to the passage of the “religiously discriminatory” Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and NRC(National Register of Citizens) , seeming police complicity in the Delhi riots, anti-conversion laws and the government engaging in and tolerating systematic, ongoing, and egregious freedom violations.
• However, India denied the allegations laid down in the report.

With time, the views about religion and religious freedom are changing. India being a land of diversity has a lot of challenges to face given this trajectory. Religious freedom is constantly under attack due to rising religious extremism not only in India but all over the world. It is time that freedom of religion or belief is considered to be a human right and efforts are made to protect it.

Practise Question

Q. What is the present status of religious freedom in India and what are the efforts needed to prevent its violations?

• https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R45303.html
• https://www.orfonline.org/research/43665-digital-hatred-real-violence-majoritarian-radicalisation-and-social-media-in-india/
• https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/india-should-be-a-country-of-particular-concern-for-religious-freedom-us-commission/article34379418.ece
• https://thewire.in/communalism/us-body-religious-freedom-india-as-country-of-particular-concern
• https://www.uscirf.gov/about-uscirf/about-us
• https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/freedomreligion/pages/standards.aspx
• https://www.religiousfreedominstitute.org/cornerstone/2016/7/19/freedom-of-religious-in-india-current-challenges
• http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/2254/Freedom-of-Religion.html
• http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/1964/Secularism-and-Constitution-of-India.html

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Political Science and International Relations Optional Topic – Wise Previous Year Questions in UPSC Main: Caste, Religion and Ethnicity in Indian Politics (2013-2023)

Navigating the intricacies of Indian politics demands a nuanced understanding of the socio-cultural fabric that shapes the nation’s identity. In the UPSC mains examination, the Political Science and International Relations (PSIR) optional paper plays a pivotal role in assessing candidates’ grasp of these complexities. One compelling area of study within this optional subject is the exploration of caste, religion, and ethnicity in Indian politics. This blog aims to shed light on this critical dimension by delving into the previous year questions from 2013 to 2023, offering aspiring civil servants a comprehensive overview of the evolving dynamics of identity politics in the country. By analyzing these questions, candidates can gain valuable insights into the recurring themes, emerging trends, and the UPSC’s evolving focus on issues related to caste, religion, and ethnicity.

Unraveling the layers of India’s political landscape, this blog series will serve as a valuable resource for PSIR optional aspirants. As we embark on this intellectual journey, we will not only explore the historical context of identity politics but also examine its contemporary manifestations. From understanding the role of caste in shaping electoral dynamics to dissecting the impact of religious diversity on policymaking, this exploration promises to equip UPSC aspirants with the knowledge and analytical skills needed to navigate the challenging terrain of the PSIR optional paper. Join us on this insightful expedition through the lens of previous year questions, and unravel the intricate tapestry of caste, religion, and ethnicity in Indian politics.

Table of Contents

Caste, Religion and Ethnicity in Indian Politics – Previous Year Questions (UPSC CSE Mains PSIR Optional)

1. ‘Community and Caste still threaten social harmony and political peace in India.’ Discuss. (1991)

2. Comment: Theory of circulation of elites. (1992)

3. How do caste and class interact with each other in Indian politics? (1993)

4. Comment: Cultural secularization. (1994)

5. How far do regional groupings pose a threat to the stability of Indian political system? (1994)

6. Comment: Ethnic separatism. (1995)

7. Comment: Creamy Layer and social justice. (1995)

8. Illustrate from contemporary Indian experience the theory of circulation of elites. (1995)

9. Analyse the problems of nation building in India. (1996)

10. Discuss how far the politics of regionalism and communalism have affected nation building in India. (1998)

11. “The electoral behaviour of Indian votes is more or less caste-ridden, including the selection process of party candidates.” In the light of the above statements, critically examine the positive or the negative role of caste in the Indian political system. (1999)

12. Comment: Caste and religion as operative factors with Indian polity. (2000)

13. Comment: Tribal peoples’ movement in the North-East. (2002)

14. Comment: The instability of national politics is due to rising influence of regional politics. (2007)

15. Examine the effect of caste and community in Indian politics. Do you foresee their continued relevance in the country’s politics? (2008)

16. “The OBC politics has challenged the nature of dominant caste politics in the states.” Critically examine this statement and bring out your conclusions. (2009)

17. Critically examine and comment on the assertion in about 200 words: Indian politics has influenced caste and caste has influenced Indian politics. (2011)

18. Explain the phenomenon of ethnic politics in India in recent times. (2013)

19. Point out and comment on the historic importance of the document “Towards Equality (1974)”, for women’s movement in India. (2013)

20. Comment in 150 words: Relation between ethnicity and democracy in India. (2014)

21. Comment: Cultural and Regional differences are the enduring bases on which politics is played out in India. (2016)

22. Comment on the emergence of Backward classes in the Indian politics. (2016)

23. Religion is still an important factor in Indian politics. Discuss. (2017)

24. Critically examine the ethnic conflicts in North-East India. (2018)

25. Development has overshadowed the influence of caste in electoral behaviour in recent elections. Discuss. (2019)

26. Examine the role of religion in Indian Electoral Politics in the contemporary times. (2020)

27. Explain how caste as a social category is also becoming a political category in the democratic politics of India. (2021)

28. Ethnicity is the underlying cause which poses a great challenge in the resolution of the problems in the North-East region of India. Comment.(2022)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: how do caste dynamics influence electoral politics in india.

Understanding the intricate relationship between caste and politics is crucial for UPSC aspirants. Explore the historical context, electoral strategies, and the impact of caste on the formation of political alliances to gain insights into the multifaceted role of caste in Indian politics.

Q: What role does religion play in shaping public policy and governance in India?

Delve into the intersection of religion and politics by examining how religious diversity influences policymaking. Explore historical instances and contemporary trends to comprehend the complexities of balancing secularism with the diverse religious landscape in the Indian political context.

Q: How has ethnicity contributed to the regionalization of politics in India?

Ethnic identity often plays a significant role in shaping political dynamics at the regional level. Explore the historical evolution of ethnic politics, the demands for autonomy, and the impact of ethnic movements on the federal structure of India.

Q: What challenges does India face in fostering a harmonious coexistence of diverse religious and ethnic communities?

Analyze the contemporary challenges related to communal tensions and ethnic conflicts. Examine government initiatives, constitutional provisions, and the role of civil society in fostering social harmony amidst the diversity of religions and ethnicities in India.

Q: How have caste-based affirmative action policies shaped social justice and inclusivity in India?

Explore the impact of reservation policies on social mobility and inclusivity. Examine the historical context, constitutional provisions, and debates surrounding affirmative action to grasp the complexities of addressing caste-based disparities in the Indian socio-political landscape.

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• Political Science and International Relations Optional Topic – Wise Previous Year Questions in UPSC Main: Indian Foreign Policy (2013-2023)
• Political Science and International Relations Optional Topic – Wise Previous Year Questions in UPSC Main: India and the Nuclear Question (2013-2023)
• Political Science and International Relations Optional Topic – Wise Previous Year Questions in UPSC Main: Grassroots Democracy (2013-2023)
• Political Science and International Relations Optional Topic – Wise Previous Year Questions in UPSC Main: Globalization (2013-2023)

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Role of Religion & Patriarchy

• 26 Jun 2021
• GS Paper - 1
• Salient Features of Indian Society
• Role of Women

This article is based on “Challenging patriarchy in religion” which was published in The Hindustan Times on 25/06/2021. It talks about the role of religion in furtherance of Patriarchy.

At Durga temple Madurai, a woman staked her claim to be the full-time pujari (priest-a hereditary position at that temple) in 2006. Agreeing with her claim, the Madras high court has recently ruled that “the altars of the God must be free from gender bias.”

After the Sabarimala judgment , this judgment can be seen as a positive step towards the furtherance of gender equality.

In many religions all across the world, patriarchal notions have seeped into religion which prohibit women into some religious activities. For example, prohibitions on women were based during their menstruation.

Therefore, in order to ensure opportunities for women to participate in every sphere of life, whether spiritual or material, the link between religion and patriarchy needs to be thoroughly discussed.

Linkage Between Religion & Patriarchy

There are several ways in which religion can promote patriarchy:

• While these roles are presented positively and as essential, they reinforce the gender norms in society and the patriarchal power structures.
• If women choose not to conform to gender stereotypes, they are not only deviating from gender norms and family expectations, but deviating from God’s will too.
• Men have been dominant as recipients, interpreters and transmitters of divine messages, while women have largely remained passive receivers of teachings and ardent practitioners of religious rituals.
• For example, in Islam women who are menstruating are not allowed to touch the Koran. Similarly, in Hinduism, menstruating women are not allowed to enter temples.
• The practice of Sati, or self-immolation by widows on the funeral-pyres of their husbands, thrived for centuries because it was rooted in the belief of the futility of a woman’s existence without her husband.
• This exclusion of women from the priesthood or leader of a religious group exemplified women’s marginalisation in religious and social life.
• Through Monothestic Religions: The development of monotheistic religions, with their all-powerful male Gods (such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Sikhism) which imbued religion with a patriarchal and sexist core.

Patriarchy & Religion and Its Impact on Women

• Acting as Cause & Effect: If patriarchy is the social normal, it is largely because it derives its legitimacy from religion, the most important rule book pertaining to societal do’s-and-don’ts in any community.
• Women as Inferior Being: Due to patriarchal notions in religion, women are painted as physically, mentally, emotionally and sexually inferior to men.
• Impacting Men As It Hurts Women: Patriarchy penetrates into every single sphere of a person's life, and it hurts men as much as it impacts women.
• Politics & Religion: Politics uses religion as a tool to manipulate the masses, women bear the brunt of the consequences of cultural attitudes.

Way Forward

• For example, the Rig-Veda expounded the idea of feminine energy behind the creation of the universe.
• Implementing UCC will be a step in the right direction in extending the narrative of gender equality.
• Codification of Personal Laws: Need of the hour is the codification of all personal laws so that prejudices and stereotypes in every one of them would come to light and can be tested on the anvil of fundamental rights of the Constitution.

The Durga temple example is not just a social engineering experiment, there are also good religious grounds for opening all ritual functions to women.

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Secularism: Challenging Religious Domination for Equality and Harmony in India

Introduction 

The Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by their religious beliefs and practices as they interpret these. In keeping with this idea of religious freedom for all , secularism in India is opposed to all forms of institutionalized religious domination and challenges not merely interreligious but also intra-religious domination. 

Concept of Secularism

• Religious Equality: Religious dominance goes beyond just occurring between different religions ( Inter-Religion Domination ),it can also manifest within a single religion ( Intra-Religious Domination ). 
• Egalitarian Society: The concept of secularism aims to create a society where there is no domination based on religion.  

Secular State

• To prevent domination by any religious group , the state must not be controlled by the leaders of a particular religion, as seen in theocratic states. 
• However, merely separating religion and state isn’t enough for a secular state.
• A truly secular state not only avoids theocracy but also avoids formal, legal ties with any religion. 

Indian Secularism

• The Indian Constitution mandates that the Indian State be secular . 
• That one religious community does not dominate another. 
• That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community.
• That the State does not enforce any particular religion nor take away the religious freedom of individuals.

Upholding Principles: 

• To uphold these principles, the Indian State employs various strategies.
• Religious Neutrality: The government and public spaces, such as law courts, schools, and offices, are not allowed to promote or display any specific religion. 
• This means that certain practices that are essential to a particular religion might be allowed, even if they differ from general laws.
• For instance, untouchability within Hinduism was banned by the Constitution to prevent discrimination against lower-caste members.
• Support for Religious Communities: The Constitution permits religious communities to establish their own educational institutions and provides them with financial assistance on a non-preferential basis.

Differences and Similarities between Indian and Western Secularism

Criticisms of Indian Secularism 

• Indian secularism aims to counter religious dominance rather than being anti-religious. 
• It promotes religious freedom and equality, safeguarding religious identities except those that are dogmatic, violent, or promote hatred .
• However, Indian secularism has its own roots, blending the peaceful coexistence of different religious communities, which makes it a unique adaptation rather than a mere import.
• Minority rights protect significant interests without imposing special privileges.
• State-supported religious reforms aim at facilitating positive changes rather than imposing them from above.
• If secular parties successfully fulfil minority needs without undermining the majority’s interests, this aligns with the goals of secularism.
• Indian secularism also mirrors the future , as global migration and globalization lead other countries to face similar cultural and religious diversities.

Conclusion: Indian secularism stands as a resilient shield against various forms of religious domination. From constitutional principles to state interventions, the emphasis remains on averting domination within and among religious communities. Leaders like Atatürk and Nehru, while differing, shared a recognition of addressing religious influences to counteract societal domination. Despite criticisms, the ongoing narrative of Indian secularism signifies an ongoing struggle against religious domination, aiming for an egalitarian society that embraces diversity without succumbing to divisive forces.

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Religion and Politics in India

Introduction

Religion and politics in india before independence, relationship between religious and political beliefs, relationship between religion and groups/institutions, works cited.

Globally, religion has always played an integral part in influencing political culture of nations. For many decades, not only has religion influenced social living through its doctrine teachings, but also has been continuously powerful in propelling political ideologies in many nations. Coupled with its linguistic federalism, ethnic problems, and religious discrimination issues, religions have historically spurred political mobilization.

Several Asian studies have constantly indicated a great connection among religions and political development and reforms of the Asian continent, before and after their independence. Two main historical religions of India, the Hinduism, and the Muslim have greatly contributed to fragmented Indian nationalism, with this nation experiencing a mixture of peace and hostility resulting from religious politics. Religious attrition and differences in India before and after its independence may have been significant to the India’s politics. Central to examining democracy development in India, the essay explores the association religion and politics in India before and after independence.

Major political transformations in India greatly associates with the involvement of religious political movements, which since history initiated communal participation in development of nationalism of India (Moore 316). Before independence, political pressure was eminent in India and characterised by political differences between non-Hindu and ethnic minority. Indian State was initially a nation that served in the ideology of secular nationalism under the reign of secular Congress Party that dominated Indian politics (Sahu 243). However, Hinduism was politically influential but their Muslim counterparts remaining sceptical about Hindus religious politics.

Before independence, the caste notion in Hindu society was most influential in social and political organisation. Moore (317) describes “caste system as the organisation of the population into hereditary and endogamous groups” where males engaged in social and political functions. There were four castes in hierarchical order and associated with spiritual, social and political progression in India. Sahu (246) identifies the castes as “Brahmanas (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (political rulers and soldiers), Vaishyas (merchants and cultivators), and Sudras (artisans and labourers)”

The caste system significantly contributed to political systems in India during the Mogul era from sixteenth century throughout to eighteenth century. The caste system strongly engaged in political reforms and improved the lives of Hindus, though with limited operations following incessant confrontations with the Muslims. As stated by Moore (317), “caste served, and still serves, to organise the life of village community, the basic cell of the Indian society and the fundamental unit that determined strong leadership.” The caste system having a great affiliation with the Hindu religion had significant obstruction to Indian democracy as history identifies this socio-political system as an era of agrarian bureaucracy.

Caste system symbolized the Indian polity and imposed political governance based on military rule that supported taxation and leadership under the chieftains. This means that politicians of Mogul era used the caste reservations to acquire unfair wealth.

The differences towards nationalism before independence of Hindu and formation of the Muslim-dominate Pakistan may be the potential backdrop to fragmented political beliefs and stands in India (Moore 371). Subsequent to Indian partition, disparity commenced intensely on political ideologies as Muslims had most majority of its potential leaders to the Muslim-dominate Pakistan. Following such issues “Indian Muslims supported and voted for the secular Congress party on the understanding that the Congress government would maintain Muslim Personal Law and other aspects of the Muslim culture” (Sahu 245).

The confrontation between the Muslim and the Hindus continued when the Hindu nationalist parties including Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) pressured the secularist Congress Party that began losing its political authority after the split. Along religious differences, proponents of secularism and Hinduism have always differed in political beliefs regarding to nationalism and doctrine that should dominate national leadership. Despite having greater political influence, Hinduism has failed to consolidate its religious authority in India.

Hinduism is the most complicated religion as each cultural linguistic zone contains its own worshiping culture and doctrine. As noted by Sahu (245), “Hindus worship different gods and goddesses, which are limited portrayals of the unlimited – ultimate reality that is formless, nameless and without personality.” Coupled with the fact that the BJP possesses leaders from Hindus, but with different religious ideologies following their broad cultural homogeneity, there exists no state religion with dominant principles in national governance. Each of the political parties contains a mixture of religious cultures practiced concomitantly, with each of the two religions influencing each other ideologically (Moore 368).

Contesting to the power of nationalism, none of the religions has managed to conquer national governance. Being proponents of secularism, Muslim differ distinctively in religious ideologies; other minor religions differ with Hinduism, and Hindus themselves have differing doctrine principles. Having shared religious power in national governance where both Muslim and Hindu religious practices apply, there is no State religion.

The India’s partition of 1947 was arguably the backdrop to formation of political groups and institutions that emerged on religious divide. Thought to be the solution towards political differences between the Hindus and the Muslim, the 1947 partition itself was the course of major political pressures in India (Moore 371). Majority Hindus differ between themselves, Muslims have different religious ideologies and Christians, and other minority groups differ as well. BJP, Ram Rajya Parishad, and RSS who were the most anti-congress parties continually existed on the foundations of Hinduism or Hindu nationalism.

Contrary to its opponents, majority of Muslims commenced with their support over Congress secularist party. Following incessant religious attritions on which religion should become a state religion, politics of India divided along linguistic lines. According to Sahu, “religious politics divided as follows: “Indian Muslims developed their own form of occupation-based caste distinction (247); Sikhs demanded a creation of a Punjabi-speaking province” (248) and Hindus remained devoted to their motive of making India a Hinduism state.

The history associated with India’s political transformations on religious grounds is considerably diverse and complicated. Religious contribution to Indian nationalism has remained a convoluted issue, with all religions existing in India having different ideologies towards state nationalism. The Indian Muslims who remained in India after the 1947 partitioning strongly opposes the efforts of Hindus in developing of Hindu nationalism, Christians and other minority religions have had a notion of discrimination.

In addition, Hindu themselves posses different religious ideologies, with some worshiping single god, others worshiping several gods, with all having different worshiping centres. India is still a nation of many religions with shared political influence and none of the religions has dominance in the national governance. This means that efforts of partitioning India into India and Muslim-dominated Pakistan was not a solution towards religious differences as the remaining Indian Muslims have also had significant political consequences in the India’s political stand.

Moore, Barrington. Social origins of dictatorship and democracy: Lord and peasant in the making of the modern world, Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 1967. Print.

Sahu, Sunil. Religion and politics in India: The emergence of Hindu Nationalism and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Print.

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Communalism – Meaning and Issues

Introduction

Communalism, is referred in the western world as a “theory or system of government in which virtually autonomous local communities are loosely in federation”. Communalism is a political philosophy , which proposes that market and money be abolished and that land and enterprises to be placed in the custody of community. But in the Indian sub-continent context, communalism has come to be associated  with tensions and clashes between different religious communities in various regions.

Development of communalism as political philosophy, has roots in the ethnic and cultural diversity of Africa. It is characterized as, People from different ethnic groups or community, who do not interact much or at all and this has somewhere acted as hindrance in the economic growth and prosperity of Africa.

Communalism in South Asia is used to denote the differences between the various religious groups and difference among the people of different community. And generally it is used to catalyse communal violence between those groups.

Communalism is not unique only to South Asia, but is also found in Africa, America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. But, it is significant socio-economic and political issue in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal, etc.

What is Communalism?

It is basically an ideology which consists of three elements:-

• The interests of the follower of the different religion or of different ‘communities’ are seen to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile.

Communalism is political trade in religion. It is an ideology on which communal politics is based. And communal violence are conjectural consequences of communal ideology.

Evolution of communalism in Indian society

If we discuss about Indian society, we will find that, ancient India was united and no such communal feelings were there. People lived peacefully together, there was acceptance for each other’s culture and tradition. For example, Ashoka followed religious tolerance and focussed mainly on Dhamma.

In Medieval period, we have examples such as- Akbar, who was epitome of secular practises and believed in propagating such values by abolishing Jajhiya tax and starting of Din-I- ilahi and Ibadat Khana. Same acceptance for different cultures and tradition was practised in several kingdoms throughout India, because of which there was peace and harmony, barring few sectarian rulers like Aurangzeb, who was least tolerant for other religious practises. But, such motives were guided purely for their personal greed of power and wealth.

Such rulers and actions by them like- imposing taxes on religious practises of other community, destructing temples, forced conversions, killing of Sikh guru, etc. were instrumental in deepening and establishing the feeling of communal differences in India. But, these incidents were not common as, huge majority of Indians were rural and were aloof from such influences and so people coexisted peacefully. Though, they were very rigid in practising their own rituals and practise, but it never became barrier in the peaceful coexistence. Overall, the Hindus and Muslims in those days, had common economic and political interests.

Communalism in India is result of the emergence of modern politics, which has its roots in partition of Bengal in 1905 and feature of separate electorate under Government of India Act, 1909 .Later, British government also appeased various communities through Communal award in 1932 , which faced strong resistance from Gandhi ji and others. All these acts were done by the British government to appease Muslims and other communities, for their own political needs. This feeling of communalism has deepened since then, fragmenting the Indian society and being a cause of unrest.

(by Communal award colonial government mandated that consensus over any issue among different communities (i.e. Hindu, Muslims, Sikhs and others) is precondition for any further political development)

Communal consciousness arose as a result of the transformation of Indian society under the impact of colonialism and the need to struggle against it.

Stages in Indian Communalism and how it spread

India is a land of diversity. And it is known for lingual, ethnic, cultural and racial diversity. As, we have discussed above, communalism in India is a modern phenomenon, which has become threat to India’s Unity in Diversity . We will see the various stages:-

On the other hand movements like Faraizi movement started Haji Shariatullah in Bengal to bring the Bengali Muslims back on the true path of Islam, was one of the religious reform movement which had bearing on communalism in 19 th century. Later people like Syed Ahmed Khan, who despite of having scientific and rational approach, projected Indian Muslims as a separate community (qaum) having interest different from others.

• Third was the stage of Extreme Communalism, this had a fascist syndrome. It demanded for separate nation, based on fear and hatred. There was tendency to use violence of language, deed and behaviour. For example Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha after 1937.

It spread as a by-product of colonialism, economic stagnations and absence of modern institutions of education and health. These factors caused competition, people started using nepotism ( patronage bestowed or favouritism shown on the basis of family relationship, as in business and politics ), paying bribes to get job, etc. Short term benefits from communalism started giving validity to communal politics.

Later on, spread of education to peasant and small landlords gave rise to new middle class, as agriculture was becoming stagnant. So, these people started demanding communal representation and this way, social base for communalism widened. Middle class oscillated between anti-imperialism and communalism. Communalism, started rooting deeply, as it was an expression of aspiration and interest of middle class for less opportunity.

Further, from very beginning upper caste Hindus dominated colonial services as they adapted early to colonial structure. Because of Mughal rule and 1857 revolt, colonial government was suspicious towards Muslims and they patronised Hindus. This resulted in resentment in Muslims in late 19 th century and they then formed a pressure group under Sir Sayed Ahmed Kahn to bargain as a separate community. In contrast Congress standpoint was always focused on ‘rights and freedom of individual’ not on a particular community

In several part religious distinction coincided with social and class distinction, causing communal distortion. Communal outlook was given, not by participants but by the officials, politician and journalists. In fact agrarian conflicts, did not assume communal colour until 20 th century. For example- Pabna agrarian movement.

Communalism represented a struggle between two upper classes / strata for power, privileges and economic gain. For Example- In western Punjab at that time, Muslim landlord opposed Hindu moneylenders. In eastern Bengal, Muslim jotedars opposed Hindu zamindars. Later on, communalism developed as weapon of economically and politically reactionary social classes and political forces.

Divide and Rule

Communalism was a channel for providing service to colonialism and the jagirdari class (land officials). British authorities supported communal feelings and divided Indian society for their authoritative ruling. As we have already discussed above about separate electorate, like that official patronage and favour having communal biasness was very common. Communal press & persons and agitations were shown extraordinary tolerance. Communal demands were accepted, thus politically strengthening communal organizations. British started accepting communal organisations and leaders as the real spokesperson of communities and adopted a policy of non-action against communalism. In fact, for the same reasons even the communal riots were not crushed. Separate electorate started in 1909 to communal award in 1932 fulfilled the wishes of British authorities of ruling India by dividing the societies on communal lines.

In parallel there was introduction of strong Hindu religious element in nationalist thoughts and propagandas. For example Bal GangadharTilak popularised Ganesh pooja and Shivaji Mahaotsav and taking dip in Ganga,etc. The programmes related to “Ganesh Pooja” and “Shivaji Mahotsav” was not initiated to support the interests of Hindus.  However, both “Ganesh” and “Shivaji” were associated with the emotions of a number of Hindus. This was to be used by Leaders as tool to politically awaken Indians. But, Indian history in schools and colleges were given Communal and unscientific colour. This kept Muslims largely away from Congress till 1919. In early decades only 8-9% of members of Congress were Muslims.

Gradually religiosity became major contributory factor and it started intruding the non-religious and non-spiritual areas of life and also beyond the individual’s private life.

Though, India is a secular country but due to communal feelings the secularization is getting affected. Secularization is narrowing down the sphere of religion to the private life of the individual. So, communalism is basically becoming a belief system through which a society, economy, and polity are viewed & expanded and around which effort is being made to organise politics.

With these unprecedented changes, the best atmosphere of communal harmony should have been created in India and according to the expectation of Mahatma Gandhi this country should have become an example in this direction.  But this did not happen.

Why communalism still persists and increasing in modern India?

Constitution of India, gives certain fundamental rights to the citizens (i.e. individuals). But in case of minorities, the whole community has been given fundamental rights under Article 28,29 and 30, according to which they are free to manage their educational institutions and have right to conserve their own culture. But these rights are being used, above the individual rights by the personal law boards guided by their own community laws. As it was seen in Shah Bano case.

There is also resentment against such personal laws and clamour is increasing for Uniform civil code , which is also mentioned under Article 44 in Directive principle for states of Indian constitution. This will help in narrowing the religious cleavages.

In absence of Uniform civil code, there is still perception that all communities have divergent and contradictory interests. Consequently, community based pressure groups bargain for their own community. At political level these communities compete for power and resources. This competition, in turn, escalates to major conflicts. Politicians try to turn these communities into vote banks and different communities become watertight compartments.

Since Independence, India has been pursuing the ideal of nation-building based on secularism. Even after 68 years of independence, India is still burning under the fire of communalism. Though, there are various reasons responsible for this. But few of them have been discussed here, understanding the reasons which play role in continuation of communalism are:-first one is religious, and the second one is political.  Third one is socio-economic and the fourth one is international.

In the first, i.e. religious, its fundamentalism should be considered responsible for communalism. After all, ‘Our belief alone is true’ and ‘rest is untrue or incomplete’, we find this kind of mentality of fundamentalists.  As per this mentality, when the followers of any religious community, sect or sub-sect indulge in their activities, they certainly come in conflict with others.  Reason is quite evident.  They do not have tolerance, which is absolutely necessary for a country like India–a land of different religious communities.  They become the cause of confrontation, malice and struggle.

Politicians also have played a villainous role in creating serious communal situations in India.  There was politics at the root of painful division of India in 1947 in the name of a particular religious community.  But even after paying a heavy price in the form of partition, in many riots provoked thereafter, we can find the involvement directly or indirectly, of political parties or their supporters.  Along with this for the sake of vote bank, the policy of appeasement, selection of candidates on the basis of community, sect, sub-sect and caste, and flaring up religious sentiments at the time of elections, led to the rise of communalism.  These practices are still continued and the country is bearing heavy loss because of it.  We can witness many adverse results of these practices.

Socio economic conditions of India, though after independence has improved and even the economic reforms after 1991 has been instrumental in improving such conditions, but still there are many challenges in front of Indian society, which are becoming threat for its diversity. Population, Poverty, illiteracy and unemployment create a lot of compulsions, especially before younger generation.  That is why, many from younger generation, because of lack of right thinking, remain unemployed and in a state of poverty, get involved in the evil like communalism. The efforts being made for uprooting poverty, illiteracy and unemployment are not as fruitful as they should be.

External elements (including non-state actors) also have a role in worsening the problem of communalism, and making it serious.  We cannot mention the name of any particular country in this regard but scholars and those who think on this problem from time to time have highlighted this fact.

The main reasons for involvement of external elements or their role in riots are as follows:

•  To create an atmosphere of instability, so that it becomes socially weak;
• To hope for gaining sympathy from minorities;
• To try to weaken the economic structure of a foreign country; and
• With the aim to conceal their own incompetence.

Infamous communal violence in India

After partition, millions of population were forced to move from both sides of the border. Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims in India were killed in masses, women were raped, and many children lost their parents. There was hatred everywhere, violence didn’t see anything except bloodshed. Later, it turned in the problem of refugees and their rehabilitation became one of the biggest challenge for independent India.

This is one of the bloodshed in India, where Sikhs in large number were massacred by anti- Sikh mob. This massacre took place in response to the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by his own Sikh body Guard in response to her actions authorising the military operation.

Kashmir is known as the heaven of India and was known for its Kashmiryat, i.e. the reflection of love, peace and harmony through brotherhood and unity of Hindu, Muslims and other communities living together. But, the brotherhood saw a serious blow due to Extremist Islamic terrorism in the Kashmir valley, which led to mass killing and large scale exodus of Kashmiri Pundits from the valley to the various regions and corners of the India, giving them the status of refugee in their own country. Since then, the valley is under the grip of communal violence and the ongoing unrest has become a problem for the development of the people.

According to Hindu mythology, Ayodhaya is birth place of Lord Rama and therefore it is sacred place for Hindu religion. But in medieval period Mughal general Mir Baqi, built a mosque, named after Mughal ruler Babur. There were disputes since then and riots also took place. But in 1990, due to some political mobilisation, there was atmosphere of protest by Hindu religious groups and in large scale “kar sevak” visited Ayodhya from all parts of India, in support of demolishing Babri masjid and building Ram temple there. These movements caused huge amount of bloodshed and since then it is a disputed matter.

After this, violence was followed by the Godhra incident in 2002, when “kar sevak” returning from Ayodhya in a Sabarmati Express were killed by fire in the coaches of train. This act was followed by the extended communal violence in Gujarat. That violence is like black spot in the history of the Gujarat and nation too, as people were killed without any mercy. Hindu and Muslim community became antagonist to each other. Till now people are fighting for justice in Supreme Court, with a ray hope from the Indian Judiciary.

North eastern states are known for its distinguished tribal population & ethnic diversity and large scale Bangladeshi immigration has changed the demography of North eastern states, which often becomes reason for clashes. In 2012, there were ethnic clashes between Bodos (Tribal, Christian & Hindu faith) and Muslims. Ethnic tensions between Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims escalated into a riot in Kokrajhar in July 2012, when unidentified miscreants killed four Bodo youths at Joypur.

The cause of this ethnic clash between Jat and Muslim community is very much disputed and has many versions. According to few, it was started after some suspicious post on Social media platform Facebook. According to some, it was escalated after the eve teasing case in Shamli. Let the reasons be unknown, but what matters is, the nature and scale of loss to the country with respect to human resource and peace.

In all these and hundreds of other riots, one thing is common that huge majority of victims have nothing to do with communal hatred. In short, preparators of violence and victims of violence are different persons.

Similar to above mentioned list, there are many more, which has impact on the masses and killed people on large scale. Bombay bomb incident, 1993, Attack on Akshardham in 2002 by Lashkar-e-Toiba & Varanasi Bomb attack, 2006 are few of them, having Anti-Hindu outlook.

Lot of movies have been pictured on the above mentioned communal violence, which can give us understanding about the damages and harm, done by these violence- “Bombay” & “Black Friday” based on 1992 attacks. “Train to Pakistan” based on the novel of Khuswant singh about partition of India, 1947. “Gandhi” is portrayal of Direct Action Day and partition of India. “ Hawayein ” based of 1984 Sikh riots and “ Machis” about Punjab terrorism.

These are the few ones to name and there are many more, which may sensitise us about such issues, so that in future it can be avoided.

Consequences of communalism

The above graph gives us idea about the decadal and regional pattern of riots and people died.

Consequences of communalism is well known to all of us. With killings in mass, the real sufferers are the poor, they lose their house, their near and dear ones, their lives, their livelihood, etc. It violates the human rights from all direction. Sometimes children will lose their parents and will become orphan for life time and nobody will be there to look after them.

Ghettoization and refugee problem is the other dimension of communalism induced violence, whether its inter country or intra country. Sudden increase in violence against any particular community causes mass exodus and stampede which in turn kills many number of people. For example, this was seen in the case of Bangalore in 2012, with respect to people from North eastern states, which was stimulated by a rumour.

Apart from having effect on the society, it is also a threat to Indian constitutional values, which promotes Secularism and religious tolerance. In that case, citizens don’t fulfil their fundamental duties towards the nation. It becomes a threat for the unity and integrity of the nation as a whole. It promotes only the feeling of hatred in all directions, dividing the society on communal lines.

Other than these, minorities are viewed with suspicion by all, including state authorities like police, para military forces, army, intelligence agencies, etc. There have been many instances when people from such community have been harassed and detained and finally have been released by court orders guilt free. For this, there is no provision of compensation of such victims, about their livelihood incomes forgone, against social stigmas and emotional trauma of the families.

Such things are set back for the society and becomes barrier for its development. This is also one of the reason which is keeping India still under the status of “developing nation” because, such activities occurring frequently do harm the human resource and economy of the country. And then again it takes years for the people and the affected regions to come out the traumas of such violence, having deep impact on minds of those who have faced it. Whole life, they feel emotionally broken and insecure. How can we imagine in such conditions, for timely harvest of demographic dividend?

What state has done?

National human rights commission (NHRC) in India fights for the causes of rights of the victims, but its recommendations are advisory in nature, which doesn’t gives significant outcome.

From time to time, respective governments have constituted various committees, to give recommendations to solve the issue of communal violence. Prominent among them are SACHAR COMMITTEE, NANAVATI COMMITTEE and RANGANATH MISHRA COMMISSION.

The  Nanavati-Mehta commission, set up by Gujarat government in 2002 to enquire about Gujarat violence.

Sachar committee , appointed in 2005, recommended to set up Equal opportunity commission (EOC) in 2010. EOC was to set up a grievance redressal mechanism for all individual cases of discriminations- religion, caste, gender & physical ability among others.

The Ranganath Misra Commission was entrusted by the Government of India to suggest practical measures for the upliftment of the socially and economically backward sections among religious and linguistic minorities and to include the modalities of implementation for the same. The report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities, headed by former Chief Justice of India Rangnath Mishra, says that 10% should be reserved for Muslims and five% for other minorities in central and state government jobs in all cadre and grades.

The purpose of all above committees is to give recommendations to find out the causes of backwardness of minorities and steps required to improve their conditions.

The Indian law defines communal violence as, “any act or series of acts, whether spontaneous or planned, resulting in injury or harm to the person and or property, knowingly directed against any person by virtue of his or her membership of any religious or linguistic minority, in any State in the Union of India, or Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes within the meaning of clauses (24) and (25) of Article 366 of the Constitution of India”

Though India is under the grip of communal violence, but till now, other than provisions under IPC and CrPC , there is no firm law to punish the originators of such violence, no clear policy for relief and rehabilitation of victims. There is no regulations for security of witness, for accountability of public servants, etc.

‘Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence (Access to Justice and Reparations) Bill, 2011’ lapsed in the parliament. The bill provided for a seven-member National authority for communal harmony, justice and reparations . It attempted to safeguard the minority sections. It had provisions for ensuring accountability of the district administration. This has already been recommended by the Sachar committee and Raganath Mishra Commission.

The role of police in communal riots is highly controversial. Generally, riot victims complain that- police did not came to rescue, police forces were themselves instrumental in the killing, they led the mob in looting and burning, arrested the innocent people and harassed them inside the lockup, etc. But as we know, that police can act much better, if there is political will and if they are given free hand along with the implementation of recommended police reforms.

There specialised battalions of Rapid Action force in India, which is a wing of CRPF, to deal with riots, riot like situations, crowd control, rescue and relief operations, and related unrest

Steps required

The solution of such problems cannot be one or two steps by government. Apart from legislative support, administrative efficiency and alertness with the help of modern tools and technology, the major onus lies on the citizens themselves by avoiding communal violence. Though its bit philosophical in nature, as it’s not a concrete solution, but the sustainable changes can be brought only by those steps.

Each of us, have to make a balance between our own religious community and national interests, we have to unite with nationalism, and then should move forward. The teachings of a religious community may be great, but the followers of the community concerned should understand that nationalism is greater.  If they do not become familiar with this fact, they will be away from national stream; they will suffer. This fact relates not only to India but also to many other countries of the world.

We have to be rational while making decisions. Each and every religious community has been founded on the basis of certain values that were best and necessary for circumstances of the country and times.  Goodness like adjustment with others, or co-operation, or consistency can be found in their teachings.  But by not moving  according to the teachings of their religious community those who depend upon fundamentalism and conservative practices, or those who use their co-religionists taking advantage of their poverty, illiteracy or innocence, are dishonest towards their own self, their co-religionists and also towards those great leaders who founded the religious community.  Everyone must understand this fact also.  Along with this, leaders of all communities, by knowing it, must come forward for an atmosphere surcharged with harmony, in which lies their welfare too. The religious teachers should promote rational and practical things through religion promoting peace and security.

Policies like appeasement, fun and frolic with the sentiments of people for individual and party interests, and selection of candidates on the basis of religious community or sect by keeping aside the qualifications, one, certainly, does the things against national interest or nationalism; are reflections of lower national thinking.  That is why; these kinds of acts should be stopped at government level and also at the level of political parties.

There is a great need to work towards eradicating the problem of unemployment among the youths, illiteracy and poverty and that too with honesty and without any discrimination.  This will help in solving many problems, and will create awakening.  The result will be in checking on communalism to a great extent.  That is why it is expected that a lot of work have to be done at government level in this direction.

But whatever have been mentioned in above paragraphs, will be effective only when our society and its citizens, become so much capable and empowered, that they can take sensible, ethical and rational decisions. This is possible only with the help of quality education. But quality education for such huge population, cannot be always expected from the public institutions. It is also the corporate social responsibility, it is the responsibility of the educated Indians, NRI and everyone who has roots in India to bring changes in Indian society. So that we can live, the ethos of our constitution and would be able to promote International peace and security too.

Media, movies and other cultural platforms can be influential in promoting peace and harmony. Though all such practises in India are common, but there is still scope for improvement in this direction.

Thus, in order to get rid of the problem of communalism in India, there is a need of collective efforts. All will have to discharge their duties.  If we do so, definitely harmony will prevail.  Everybody will prosper. This must be done; this was the dream of Mahatma Gandhi for a free India.

Challenge of social media and Freedom of expression

Now a day’s social media has become notorious for spread of communal hatred. It provides almost instant transfer of provoking material on which our government has no control. It has become potent tool in hands of religious bigots to spread hatred for other religions.

It is true that, Fundamental Rights, under article 19(1), gives citizens freedom of expression. But proviso to this article also empowers government to impose reasonable restrictions to guard unity and integrity of the country. Further, under Fundamental Duties 51A constitution provides –

“ (e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women”

This needs to be enforced by state by controlling social media. In olden days, whenever any provocative print media came government invoked its powers and imposed restriction, but yet government has no strong/effective policy towards social media.

Communal violence is common now days throughout the world. They are known by various alternative names, as in China, the communal violence in Xinjiang province is called ethnic violence. Communal violence and riots have also been called non-State conflict, violent civil or minorities unrest,  mass racial violence , social or inter-communal violence and ethno-religious violence.

Violence between Buddhists and the Muslim Rohingya, inhabit Rakhine state (formerly Arakan province) which stretches along most of Myanmar’s coast up to the Bay of Bengal and borders the Chittagong province of Bangladesh, erupted in 2013. Such violence in neighbouring countries like Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Pakistan causes violence in retaliation in India also. It also catalyses the problem of refuges, as in case of Pakistani Hindus, etc. Sri Lanka is also facing international critics and United Nations related to ethnic clashes and action of government against minority Tamilians, which has direct bearing on India and Sri Lanka relations and India’s internal security.

Increasing diversity, due to influx of populations from all corners of world in western countries like USA, UK, Canada, Australia, etc. is posing the challenge of ethnic clashes and violence in their respective societies.

Communalism can be combated with the help of globalisation as a tool. In the globalised world, all countries are becoming integrated and dependent on each other. Movement of people from one place to other is becoming very easy, in such conditions to avoid such potential violence, governments are already promoting cultural exchanges through shows, programs, heritage walk, cultural visit by students and parliamentarians. Promoting learning of each other’s local language for easy exchange of ideas. With respect to this, recently US President Barak Obama’s message on Diwali festival can be seen as an active step to promote cultural mingling and living peacefully. If all the countries cooperate with each other, they can face and solve even the deadliest challenge of terrorism and groups like Al-qaeda, ISIS,etc.

Post Script – Though lot of things can be covered under the scope of this topic, whatever is not covered, please contribute and discuss in the comment section, making this topic comprehensive.

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