Reliability (CR)
Discriminant validity—Fornell and Larcker’s criterion.
Work Motivation | Social Relatedness | |
---|---|---|
Work motivation | 0.657 | |
Social relatedness | 0.012 * | 0.636 |
* p < 0.05.
HLM results: (The DV is work motivation) a,b .
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | SE | Coefficient | SE | Coefficient | SE | ||||
−0.063 | 0.006 | *** | −0.063 | 0.006 | *** | −0.063 | 0.006 | *** | |
0.036 | 0.005 | *** | 0.037 | 0.005 | *** | 0.036 | 0.005 | *** | |
0.042 | 0.006 | *** | 0.042 | 0.006 | *** | 0.042 | 0.006 | *** | |
0.010 | 0.061 | 0.007 | 0.062 | ||||||
−0.064 | 0.054 | −0.064 | 0.055 | ||||||
0.019 | 0.059 | 0.033 | 0.060 | ||||||
0.297 | 0.066 | *** | 0.288 | 0.067 | *** | ||||
−0.013 | 0.007 | † | |||||||
−0.000 | 0.006 | ||||||||
0.032 | 0.007 | *** | |||||||
0.042 | 0.007 | *** | |||||||
−0.009 | 0.007 | ||||||||
0.012 | 0.006 | * | |||||||
0.012 | 0.006 | † | |||||||
0.011 | 0.007 | ||||||||
−0.006 | 0.009 | ||||||||
−0.013 | 0.008 | ||||||||
0.019 | 0.007 | ** | |||||||
−0.020 | 0.008 | * | |||||||
0.067 | 0.005 | *** | 0.067 | 0.005 | *** | 0.068 | 0.005 | *** | |
0.011 | 0.006 | * | 0.011 | 0.005 | * | 0.013 | 0.006 | * | |
0.025 | 0.006 | *** | 0.026 | 0.006 | *** | 0.027 | 0.006 | *** | |
0.002 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.006 | ||||
−0.014 | 0.079 | −0.054 | 0.056 | −0.052 | 0.057 | ||||
−0.218 | 0.080 | * | −0.067 | 0.062 | −0.077 | 0.062 |
a , n = 32,614 level 1; n = 25, level 2. b , †, p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
For the confirmatory factor analysis, previous research (e.g., [ 102 , 103 , 104 ]) suggested that analysis of each variable requires at least three items. Factor analysis using statistical software will provide imprecise results if there are fewer than three items per variable [ 105 ]. Therefore, the authors only performed Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for social relatedness and work motivation.
To assess the measurement, convergent and discriminant validity were tested. Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were performed to illustrate convergent validity. The study of Hair et al. (2019) [ 106 ] suggested that CR is required to be above a threshold of 0.7. On the other hand, the AVE value should be higher than a threshold of 0.5 [ 107 ]. As shown in Table 3 , CR is acceptable while AVE is slightly lower than a threshold of 0.5. Despite the limitation of AVE, the acceptable result of the discriminant validity is achieved. The discriminant validity was tested using Fornell and Larcker (1981)’s criterion [ 107 ]. This proposes that the square root of the AVE of any latent variable should be higher than its correlation with any other construct. The result of the discriminant validity test indicates that all the two latent constructs have a square root of AVE higher than its correlation with the other construct, as presented in Table 4 .
The authors argued that individuals’ competence (H1), autonomy (H2), and social relatedness (H3) positively relate to their work motivation. However, the findings only supported H2 (β2 = 0.036, p < 0.001) and H3 (β3 = 0.042, p < 0.001). In contrast, the findings presented that H1 was also significant, but in the opposite direction compared with our original prediction. The result suggests that individuals’ competence negatively relates to their work motivation.
In Hypotheses 4a–d, we proposed that higher levels of religious affiliation (4a), political participation (4b), humane orientation (4c), and in-group collectivism (4d) strengthen the relationship described in H1. However, the results only demonstrated support for the two hypotheses, H4c (γ13 = 0.032, p < 0.001) and H4d (γ14 = 0.042, p < 0.001). In contrast, the findings presented that H4a was also significant, but opposite our initial prediction. This different result proposes that a higher level of religious affiliation weakens the association between individuals’ competence and work motivation.
In Hypotheses 5a–d, the authors argued that the higher levels of religious affiliation (5a), political participation (5b), humane orientation (5c), and in-group collectivism (5d) enhance the positive relationship between individuals’ autonomy and their work motivation. However, the results only supported the two hypotheses H5b (γ22 = 0.012, p < 0.05) and H5c (γ23 = 0.012, p < 0.1), while H5a and H5d were not significant.
In Hypotheses 6a–d, the authors argued that the higher levels of religious affiliation (6a), political participation (6b), humane orientation (6c), and in-group collectivism (6d) enhance the positive relationship between individuals’ social relatedness and their work motivation. However, the results only supported H6c (γ33 = 0.019, p < 0.01). In contrast, the findings indicated that H6d was also significant, but in the opposite direction compared to our initial hypothesis. The different result suggests that higher in-group collectivism weakens the positive association between individuals’ social relatedness and work motivation. Figure 1 , Figure 2 , Figure 3 , Figure 4 and Figure 5 represent the significant moderators of the associations examined.
The association between competence and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.
The association between competence and work motivation at different levels of in-group collectivism.
The association between autonomy and work motivation at different levels of political participation.
The association between autonomy and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.
The association between social relatedness and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.
Regarding the statistical results of the control variables, gender, marital status, and age consistently indicated significant positive relationships with work motivation across three models. On the other hand, family strength indicated a significant negative association to work motivation only in Model 1.
The study’s objective was to examine the influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on their work motivation, as well as the impact of country-level moderators, including religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism on their relationships. Seven primary findings are crucial in this research. First, people’s autonomy and social relatedness positively relate to their work motivation. This result is in line with the findings of prior researchers (e.g., [ 45 , 52 ]), postulating that humans’ autonomy and social relatedness breeds work motivation. The study of Theurer et al. (2018) [ 108 ] argued that, among motivational elements, autonomy had been found to greatly predict positive work motivation. When people feel they have enough control over their activities, they are more confident and motivated to work. Along with autonomy, humans’ social relatedness promotes communal benefits, thereby motivating people to work harder for their organization. Second, the association between individual competence and work motivation is moderated by cultural values, including humane orientation and in-group collectivism. The findings are consistent with the viewpoints of prior researchers (e.g., [ 69 , 70 , 77 , 78 ]), namely that a society with higher levels of humane orientation and in-group collectivism strengthens altruism, solidarity, loyalty, and the encouragement of individuals, which results in work motivation. Consequently, there will be an increase in the differences in individuals’ competence and work motivation if they live in a society with greater humane orientation and in-group collectivism. Third, political participation and humane orientation moderate the relationship between individual autonomy and work motivation. These results are in line with the investigations of prior researchers (e.g., [18,45), which found that social circumstances and cultural practices promote people’s motivation. Accordingly, the differences in individuals’ autonomy based on their work motivation will be enhanced if they belong to nations with higher political participation and humane orientation. Fourth, the association between social relatedness and work motivation is moderated by humane orientation. Accordingly, in a humane-oriented society, the differences in individuals’ social relatedness based on their work motivation will be strengthened.
The remaining findings were contrary to the original propositions. Pinder (2014) [ 20 ] argued that it is possible to find that contextual practices can influence variables at the individual level in the opposite prediction in motivation research. Fifth, individuals’ competence negatively influences their work motivation. This finding proposes that more competent individuals are less motivated at work. One possible interpretation of this opposite result is that, when the majority of the organization members recognize individuals’ competence, these individuals may perceive that it is not necessary to devote most of their time and energy to work anymore. These individuals may believe that no matter how unwillingly they perform, they are still competent enough because of their prior achievements. Additionally, competent individuals recognize that they have already sacrificed their enjoyment of life for their previous successes; therefore, they tend to offset this by investing their valuable time in other aspects. This is consistent with other researchers’ investigations (e.g., [ 109 ]), which found that low-skilled individuals are more often compelled to engage in regular work activities and are more easily motivated than others. By contrast, highly competent individuals tend to be motivated by challenging tasks and improving themselves through further education. Sixth, the relationship between competence and work motivation is negatively moderated by religious affiliation. This finding suggests that religious affiliation weakens the association between individuals’ competence and work motivation. One possible explanation for this finding is that strong religious beliefs are the foundation for virtuous living [ 110 ]. Individuals with religious affiliation usually employ religious principles to guide their behavior, regardless of their competence. In other words, both competent and incompetent individuals tend to be more motivated at the workplace if they are affiliated with any religion, thereby diminishing the influence of competence in work motivation. Seventh, the relationship between social relatedness and work motivation is negatively moderated by in-group collectivism. This result proposes that a higher degree of in-group collectivism weakens the association between individuals’ social relatedness and work motivation. One possible explanation for this is that, under an in-group collective society, people put more weight on mutual relationships and encourage acts that may build up the solidarity of groups. Since in-group collectivism is viewed as a social attachment in which people emphasize the group over the self (e.g., [ 79 , 80 , 81 ]), individuals are fairly conscious of their responsibility to the group regardless of their social relatedness. Both socially related and unrelated individuals belonging to in-group collective cultures tend to work harder for common goals. Accordingly, the influence of individuals’ social relatedness on their work motivation is reduced.
Despite its significant contributions, this study has its limitations. The use of secondary data represents the fact that the data collection process was beyond the authors’ control. However, the collection of cross-national data is time-consuming and costly. The authors used the available data but strove for the efficient use of multilevel data. The secondary data also limited the measurement of individual-level factors based on the available data. Moreover, it is quite complex to gauge an individual’s work motivation appropriately, since personal work motivation may not be one-dimensional. Nevertheless, the authors made efforts to employ the measurements utilized by prior research. Moreover, it is complicated to measure social factors such as political participation. There are challenges in investigating social contexts due to the absence of direct measurements [ 111 ]. This compels the authors to identify substitute measurements for this study. Finally, this study covered 25 samples from 25 countries with different characteristics. Despite the attempt of this study to include the most relevant social conditions in the framework, the influence of other national differences and cultural sensitivities were not considered.
This paper directs further research considering that several frameworks and approaches should be employed to better examine motivation [ 112 ]. First, as some of the results were opposite to the original propositions based on the theoretical foundations employed, combining different concepts and approaches is necessary to enhance perspectives of psychological needs and social issues. For instance, the relationship between competence and work motivation can be further investigated by employing other theories to understand their association better. Similarly, the moderating effects of social contexts such as religious affiliation and in-group collectivism should be further examined to obtain a more in-depth comprehension of the roles of contextual circumstances and cultural values in individual-level relationships. Additionally, self-determination theory and the concept of prosocial motivation may be used to explore motivation towards specific behavior in organizations, such as organizational citizenship and proactive behaviors. Organizational context, such as rewards, training, and culture, can be considered as part of the framework to enhance the conception of work motivation.
This study has utilized a multilevel framework to examine the influence of psychological needs and social context on work motivation. Through this research, a deeper understanding of the roles of competence, autonomy, and social relatedness, as well as social situations and cultural values on work motivation, is achieved. The contrary findings call for integrating other concepts and approaches towards a more comprehensive knowledge of work motivation.
Along with the theoretical contribution, the study’s findings offer practical implications. The satisfaction of psychological needs promotes self-motivation, which creates positive outcomes. Hence, organizations can provide programs and activities to promote employees’ autonomy and social relatedness as this will enhance their work motivation. Employee empowerment can be advocated by encouraging them to make their own decisions at the workplace, providing constructive criticisms rather than instilling the fear of failure. Additionally, managers should encourage solidarity, support, and mutual care among employees. Putting more weight on employees’ fulfillment of needs will further increase employees’ motivation, thereby diminishing costs related to stress or turnover [ 50 ]. To establish a novel mechanism towards promoting work motivation in the entire nation, the government should pay attention to the political structure and conditions that encourage citizens’ participation. Additionally, a culture of humane orientation should be promoted in the workplace and society so that solidarity, kind assistance, and altruism among communities as well as among individuals can be strengthened. For instance, teamwork should be encouraged for employees to help each other overcome difficulties at the workplace or share responsibilities with their colleagues. This will motivate people to work harder for collective goals, contributing to the development of organizations.
Conceptualization, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; data collection, T.T.D.V.; methodology, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; formal analysis, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; resources, K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; writing-original draft, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; writing-review, editing & proofreading, T.T.D.V., K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; visualization, K.V.T.; supervision, K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; project administration, K.V.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This paper does not receive funding from any individuals or organizations.
Not applicable.
Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Psychology: Research and Review
Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica volume 34 , Article number: 2 ( 2021 ) Cite this article
7704 Accesses
9 Citations
2 Altmetric
Metrics details
Considering the recent and current evolution of work and the work context, the meaning of work is becoming an increasingly relevant topic in research in the social sciences and humanities, particularly in psychology. In order to understand and measure what contributes to the meaning of work, Morin constructed a 30-item questionnaire that has become predominant and has repeatedly been used in research in occupational psychology and by practitioners in the field. Nevertheless, it has been validated only in part.
Meaning of work questionnaire was conducted in French with 366 people (51.3% of women; age: ( M = 39.11, SD = 11.25); 99.2% of whom were employed with the remainder retired). Three sets of statistical analyses were run on the data. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted on independent samples.
The questionnaire described a five-factor structure. These dimensions (Success and Recognition at work and of work, α = .90; Usefulness, α = .88; Respect for work, α = .88; Value from and through work, α = .83; Remuneration, α = .85) are all attached to a general second-order latent meaning of work factor (α = .96).
Validation of the scale, and implications for health in the workplace and career counseling practices, are discussed.
Since the end of the 1980s, many studies have been conducted to explore the meaning of work, particularly in psychology (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010 ). A review of the bibliographical data in PsychInfo shows that between 1974 and 2006, 183 studies addressed this topic (Morin, 2006 ). This scholarly interest was primarily triggered by Sverko and Vizek-Vidovic’s ( 1995 ) article, which identified the approaches and models that have been used and their main results.
Whereas early studies on the meaning of work introduced the concept and its theoretical underpinnings (e.g., Harpaz, 1986 ; Harpaz & Fu, 2002 ; Morin, 2003 ; MOW International Research team, 1987 ), later research tried to connect this aspect of work with other psychological dimensions or individual perceptions of the work context (e.g., Harpaz & Meshoulam, 2010 ; Morin, 2008 ; Morin, Archambault, & Giroux, 2001 ; Rosso et al., 2010 ; Wrzesniewski, Dutton, & Debebe, 2003 ). Nevertheless, scholars, particularly those in organizational and occupational psychology, soon found it difficult to precisely identify the meaning of work because it changes in accordance with the conceptualizations of different researchers, the theoretical models used to describe it, and the tools that are available to measure it for individuals and for groups.
This article first seeks to clarify the concept of the meaning of work (definitions and models) before bringing up certain problems involved in its measurement and the diversity in how the concept has been used. Then the paper focuses on a particular meaning of work measurement tool developed in Canada, which is now widely used in French-speaking countries. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Morin et al. ( 2001 ) developed a 30-item questionnaire to better determine the dimensions that give meaning to a person’s work. The statistical analyses needed to determine the reliability and validity of Morin et al.’s meaning of work questionnaire have never been completed. Indeed, some changes were made to the initial scale, and the analyses only based on homogenous samples of workers in different professional sectors. Thus and even though the meaning of work scale is used quite frequently, both researchers and practitioners have been unsure about whether or not to trust its results. The main objective of the present study was thus to provide a psychometric validation of Morin et al.’s meaning of work scale and to uncover its latent psychological structure.
Meaning of work: what is it.
As many scholars have found, the concept of the meaning of work is not easy to define (e.g., Rosso et al., 2010 ). In terms of theory, it has been defined differently in different academic fields. In psychology, it refers to an individual’s interpretations of his/her actual experiences and interactions at work (Ros, Schwartz, & Surkiss, 1999 ). From a sociological point of view, it involves assessing meaning in reference to a system of values (Rosso et al., 2010 ). In this case, its definition depends on cultural or social differences, which make explaining this concept even more complex (e.g., Morse & Weiss, 1955 ; MOW International Research team, 1987 ; Steers & Porter, 1979 ; Sverko & Vizek-Vidovic, 1995 ).
At a conceptual level, the meaning of work has been defined in three different ways (Morin, 2003 ). First, it can refer to the meaning of work attached to an individual’s representations of work and the values he/she attributes to that work (Morse & Weiss, 1955 ; MOW International Research team, 1987 ). Second, it can refer to a personal preference for work as defined by the intentions that guide personal action (Super & Sverko, 1995 ). Third, it can be understood as consistency between oneself and one’s work, similar to a balance in one’s personal relationship with work (Morin & Cherré, 2004 ).
With respect to terms, some differences exist because the meaning of work is considered an individual’s interpretation of what work means or of the role it plays in one’s life (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003 ). Yet this individual perception is also influenced by the environment and the social context (Wrzesniewski et al., 2003 ). The psychological literature on the meaning of work has primarily examined its positive aspects, even though work experiences can be negative or neutral. This partiality about the nature of the meaning of work in research has led to some confusion in the literature between this concept and that of meaningful , which refers to the extent to which work has personal significance (a quantity) and seems to depend on positive elements (Steger, Dik, & Duffy, 2012 ). A clearer demarcation should be made between these terms in order to specify the exact sense of the meaning of work: “This would reserve ‘meaning’ for instances in which authors are referring to what work signifies (the type of meaning), rather than the amount of significance attached to the work” (Rosso et al., 2010 , p. 95).
The original idea of the meaning of work refers to the central importance of work for people, beyond the simple behavioral activity through which it occurs. Drawing on various historical references, certain authors present work as an essential driver of human life; these scholars then seek to understand how work is fundamental (e.g., Morin, 2006 ; Sverko & Vizek-Vidovic, 1995 ). The concept of the meaning of work is connected to the centrality of work for the individual and consequently fulfills four different important functions: economic (to earn a living), social (to interact with others), prestige (social position), and psychological (identity and recognition). In this view, the centrality of work is based on an ensemble of personal and social values that differ between individuals as well as between cultures, economic climates, and occupations (England, 1991 ; England & Harpaz, 1990 ; Roe & Ester, 1999 ; Ruiz-Quintanilla & England, 1994 ; Topalova, 1994 ; Zanders, 1993 ).
The first theoretical model for the meaning of work was based on research in the MOW project (MOW International Research team, 1987 ), considered the “most empirically rigorous research ever undertaken to understand, both within and between countries, the meanings people attach to their work roles” (Brief, 1991 , p. 176). This view suggests that the meaning of work is based on five principal theoretical dimensions: work centrality as a life role, societal norms regarding work, valued work outcomes, importance of work goals, and work-role identification. A series of studies on this theory was conducted in Israel (Harpaz, 1986 ; Harpaz & Fu, 2002 ; Harpaz & Meshoulam, 2010 ), complementing the work of the MOW project (MOW International Research team, 1987 ). Harpaz ( 1986 ) empirically identified six latent factors that represent the meaning of work: work centrality, entitlement norm, obligation norm, economic orientation, interpersonal relations, and expressive orientation.
Another theoretical model on the importance of work in a person’s life was created by Sverko in 1989 . This approach takes into account the interactions among certain work values (the importance of these values and the perception of possible achievements through work), which depend on a process of socialization. The ensemble is then moderated by an individual’s personal experiences with work. In the same vein, Rosso et al. ( 2010 ) tried to create an exhaustive model of the sources that influence the meaning of work. This model is built around two major dimensions: Self-Others (individual vs. other individuals, groups, collectives, organizations, and higher powers) and Agency-Communion (the drives to differentiate, separate, assert, expand, master, and create vs. the drives to contact, attach, connect, and unite). This theoretical framework describes four major pathways to the meaning of work: individuation (autonomy, competence, and self-esteem), contribution (perceived impact, significance, interconnection, and self-abnegation), self-connection (self-concordance, identity affirmation, and personal engagement), and unification (value systems, social identification, and connectedness).
Lastly, a more recent model (Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012 ) converges with the theory suggested by Rosso et al. ( 2010 ) but distinguishes two dimensions: Self-Others versus Being-Doing. This model describes four pathways to meaningful work: developing the inner self, unity with others, service to others, and expressing one’s full potential.
Without claiming to be exhaustive, this brief presentation of the theoretical models of the meaning of work underscores the difficulty in precisely defining this concept, the diversity of possible approaches to identifying its contours, and therefore implicitly addresses the various tools designed to measure it.
Various methodologies have been used to better determine the concept of the meaning of work and to grasp what it involves in practice. The tools examined below have been chosen because of their different methodological approaches.
One of the first kinds of measurements was developed by the international MOW project (MOW International Research team, 1987 ). In this study, England and Harpaz ( 1990 ) and Ruiz-Quintanilla and England ( 1994 ) used 14 defining elements to assess agreement on the perception of work of 11 different sample groups questioned between 1989 and 1992. These elements, resulting from the definition of work given by the MOW project and studied by applying multivariate analyses and textual content analyses ( When do you consider an activity as working ? Choose four statements from the list below which best define when an activity is “ working,” MOW International Research team, 1987 ), can be grouped into four distinct heuristic categories (Table 1 ).
Similarly, England ( 1991 ) studied changes in the meaning of work in the USA between 1982 and 1989. He used four different methodological approaches to the meaning of work: societal norms about work, importance of work goals, work centrality, and definition of work by the labor force. In the wake of these studies, others developed scales to measure the centrality of work in people’s lives, either for the general population (e.g., Warr, 2008 ) or for specific subpopulations such as unemployed people, on the basis of a rather similar conceptualization of the meaning of work (McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, & Kinicki, 2005 ; Wanberg, 2012 ).
Finally, Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, and Schwartz ( 1997 ) developed a rather unusual method for evaluating people’s relationships with their work. Although not directly connected to research on the meaning of work, this study and the questionnaire they used ( University of Pennsylvania Work-Life Questionnaire ) addressed some of the same concepts. Above all, they employed the concepts in a very particular way that combined psychological scales, scenarios, and sociodemographic questions. Through these scenarios (Table 2 ) and the extent to which the respondents felt like the described characters, their relationship to work was described as either a Job, a Career, or a Calling.
This presentation of certain tools for measuring the meaning of work reveals a variety of methodological approaches. Nevertheless, whereas certain methods have adopted a rather traditional psychological approach, others are often difficult to use for various reasons such as their psychometrics (e.g., the use of only one item to measure a concept; England, 1991 ; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997 ) or for practical reasons (e.g., the participants were asked questions that pertained not only to their individual assessment of work but also to various other parts of their lives; England, 1991 ; Warr, 2008 ). This diversity in the possible uses of the meaning of work makes it difficult to select a tool to measure it.
In French-speaking countries (Canada and Europe primarily), the previously mentioned scale created by Morin et al. ( 2001 ) has predominated and has repeatedly been used in research in occupational psychology and by practitioners in the field. Nevertheless, there has not been a complete validation of the scale (i.e., different forms of the same tool, only the use of exploratory factor analyses, and no similar structures found) that was the motivation for the current study.
The present article conceives of the meaning of work as representing a certain consistency between what an individual wants out of work and the individual’s perception, lived or imagined, of his/her work. It thus corresponds to the third definition of the meaning of work presented above—consistency between oneself and one's work (Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). This definition is strictly limited to the meaning given to work and the personal significance of this work from the activities that the work implies. Within this conceptual framework, some older studies adopted a slightly different cognitive conception, in which individuals constantly seek a balance between themselves and their environment, and any imbalance triggers a readjustment through which the person attempts to stabilize his/her cognitive state (e.g., Heider, 1946 ; Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955 ). Here, the meaning of work must be considered a means for maintaining psychological harmony despite the destabilizing events that work might involve. In this view, meaning is viewed as an effect or a product of the activity (Brief & Nord, 1990 ) and not as a permanent or fixed state. It then becomes a result of person-environment fit and falls within the theory of work adjustment (Dawis, Lofquist, & Weiss, 1968 ).
Within this framework, a series of recurring and interdependent studies should be noted (e.g., Morin, 2003 , 2006 ; Morin & Cherré, 1999 , 2004 ) because they have attempted to measure the coherence that a person finds in the relation between the person’s self and his/her work and thus implicitly the meaning of that work. Therefore, these studies make it possible to understand the meaning of work in greater detail, meaning that it could be used in practice through a self-evaluation questionnaire. The level of coherence is considered the degree of similarity between the characteristics of work that the person attributes meaning to and the characteristics that he/she perceives in his/her present work (Aronsson, Bejerot, & Häremstam, 1999 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). Based on semi-structured interviews and on older research related to the quality of life at work (Hackman & Oldham, 1976 ; Ketchum & Trist, 1992 ), a model involving 14 characteristics was developed: the usefulness of work, the social contribution of work, rationalization of the tasks, workload, cooperation, salary, the use of skills, learning opportunities, autonomy, responsibilities, rectitude of social and organizational practices, the spirit of service, working conditions, and, finally, recognition and appreciation (Morin, 2006 ; Morin & Cherré, 1999 ). Then, based on this model, a 30-item questionnaire was developed to offer more precise descriptions of these dimensions. Table 3 presents the items, which were designed and administered to the participants in French.
Some studies for structurally validating this questionnaire have been conducted over the years (e.g., Morin, 2003 , 2006 , 2008 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). However, their results were not very precise or comparable. For example, the number of latent factors in the meaning of work scale structure varied (e.g., six or eight factors: Morin, 2003 ; six factors: Morin, 2006 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ), the sample groups were not completely comparable (especially with respect to occupations), and finally, items were added or removed or their phrasing was changed (e.g., 30 and 33 items: Morin, 2003 ; 30 items: Morin, 2006 ; 26 items: Morin, 2008 ). Yet the most prominent methodological problem was that only exploratory analyses (most often a principal component analysis with varimax rotation) had been applied. This scale was entirely relevant from a theoretical point of view because it offered a more specific definition of the meaning of work than other scales and, mainly, because some subdimensions appeared to be linked with anxiety, depression, irritability, cognitive problems, psychological distress, and subjective well-being (Morin et al., 2001 ). It was also relevant from a practical point of view because it was short and did not take much time to complete. However, its use was questionable because it had never been validated psychometrically, and a consistent latent psychological structure had not been identified across studies.
As an example, two models representing the structure of the 30-item scale are presented in Table 3 (Morin et al., 2001 ; Morin, 2003 , for the first model; Morin & Cherré, 2004 , for the second one). This table presents the items, the meaning of work dimensions they are theoretically related to, and the solution from the principal component analysis in each study. These analyses revealed that the empirical and theoretical structures of this tool are not stable and that the latent structure suffers from the insufficient use of statistical methods. In particular, there was an important difference found between the two models in previous studies (Morin et al., 2001 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). Only the “usefulness of work” dimension was found to be identical, comprised of the same items in both models. Other dimensions had a maximum of only three items in common. Therefore, it is very difficult to utilize this tool both in practice and diagnostically, and complementary studies must be conducted. Even though there are techniques for replicating explanatory analyses (e.g., Osborne, 2012 ), such techniques could not be used here because not all the necessary information was given (e.g., all factor loadings, communalities). This is why collecting new data appeared to be the only way to analyze the scale.
More recently, two studies (which applied a new 25-item meaningful work questionnaire ) were developed on the basis of Morin’s scale (Bendassolli & Borges-Andrade, 2013 ; Bendassolli, Borges-Andrade, Coelho Alves, & de Lucena Torres, 2015 ). Even though the concepts of the “meaning of work” and “meaningful work” are close, the two scales are formally and theoretically different and do not evaluate the same construct.
The purpose of the present study was thus to determine the structure of original Morin’s 30-item scale (Morin, 2003 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ) by using an exploratory approach as well as confirmatory statistical methods (structural equation modeling) and in so doing, to address the lacunae in previous research discussed above. The end goal was thus to identify the structure of the scale statistically so that it can be used empirically in both academic and professional fields. Indeed, as mentioned previously, this scale is of particular interest to researchers because its design is not limited to measuring a general meaning of work for each individual; it can also be used to evaluate discrepancies or a convergence between a person’s own personal meaning of work and a specific work context (e.g., tasks, relations with others, autonomy). Finally, and with respect to previous results, the scale could be a potential predictor of professional well-being and psychological distress at work (Morin et al., 2001 ).
The questionnaire was conducted with 366 people who were mainly resident in Paris and the surrounding regions in France. The gender distribution was almost equal; 51.3% of the respondents were women. The respondents’ ages ranged from 19 to 76 years ( M = 39.11, SD = 11.25). The large majority of people were employed (99.2%). Twenty percent worked in medical and paramedical fields, 26% in retail and sales, and 17% in human resources (the other respondents worked in education, law, communication, reception, banking, and transportation). Seventy percent had fewer than 10 years of seniority in their current job ( M = 8.64, SD = 9.65). Only three people were retired (0.8%).
Morin’s 30-item meaning of work questionnaire (Morin, 2003 ; Morin et al., 2001 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ) along with sociodemographic questions (i.e., sex, age, job activities, and seniority at work) were conducted in French through an online platform. Answers to the meaning of work questionnaire were given on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 5 ( strongly agree ).
Participants were recruited through various professional online social networks. This method does not provide for a true random sample but, owing to it resulting in a potentially larger range of respondents, it enlarges the heterogeneousness of the participants, even if it cannot ensure representativeness (Barberá & Zeitzoff, 2018 ; Hoblingre Klein, 2018 ). This point seems important because very homogenous samples were used in previous studies, especially with regard to professions.
Participants were volunteers, and were given the option of being able to stop the survey at any time. They received no compensation and no individual feedback. Participants were informed of these conditions before filling out the questionnaire. Oral and informed consent was obtained from all participants. Moreover, the Luxembourg Agency for Research Integrity (LARI on which the researchers in this study depend) specified that according to Code de la santé publique—Article L1123-7, it appears that France does not require research ethics committee [Les Comités de Protection des Personnes (CPP)] approval if the research is non-biomedical, non-interventional, observational, and does not collect personal health information, and thus CNR approval was not required.
Participants had to answer each question in order to submit the questionnaire: If one item was not answered, the respondent was not allowed to proceed to the next question. Thus, the database has no missing data. An introduction presented the subject of the study and its goals and guaranteed the participant’s anonymity. Researchers’ e-mail addresses were given, and participants were informed that they could contact the researchers for more information.
Three sets of statistical analyses were run on the data:
Analysis of the items, using traditional true score theory and item response theory, for verifying the psychometric qualities (using mainly R package “psych”). The main objectives of this part of analysis were to better understand the variability of respondents’ answers, to compute the discriminatory power of items, and to verify the distribution of items by using every classical descriptive indicator (mean, standard-deviation, skewness, and kurtosis), corrected item-total correlations, and functions of responses for distributions.
An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with an oblimin rotation in order to define the latent structure of the meaning of work questionnaire, performed with the R packages “psych” and “GPArotation”. The structure we retained was based on adequation fits of various solutions (TLI, RMSEA and SRMR, see “List of abbreviations” section at the end of the article), and the use of R package “EFAtools” which helps to determine the adequate number of factors to retain for the EFA solution. Finally, this part of the analysis was concluded using calculations of internal consistency for each factor found in the scale.
A confirmatory factor analysis using the R package Lavaan and based on the results of the EFA, in order to verify that the latent structure revealed in Step c was valid and relevant for this meaning of work scale. The adequation between data and latent structure was appreciated on the basis of CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR (see “Abbreviations” section).
For step a, the responses of the complete sample were considered. For steps b and c, 183 subjects were selected randomly for each analysis from the total study sample. Thus, two subsamples comprised of completely different participants were used, one for the EFA in step b and one for the CFA in step c.
Because of the ordinal measurement of the responses and its small number of categories (5-point Likert), none of the items can be normally distributed. This point was verified in step a of the analyses. Thus, the data did not meet the necessary assumptions for applying factor analyses with conventional estimators such as maximum likelihood (Li, 2015 ; Lubke & Muthén, 2004 ). Therefore, because the variables were measured on ordinal scales, it was most appropriate to apply the EFA and CFA analyses to the polychoric correlation matrix (Carroll, 1961 ). Then, to reduce the effects of the specific item distributions of the variables used in the factor analyses, a minimum residuals extraction (MINRES; Harman, 1960 ; Jöreskog, 2003 ) was used for the EFA, and a weighted least squares estimator with degrees of freedom adjusted for means and variances (WLSMV) was used for the CFA as recommended psychometric studies (Li, 2015 ; Muthén, 1984 ; Muthén & Kaplan, 1985 ; Muthén & Muthén, 2010 ; Yang, Nay, & Hoyle, 2010 ; Yu, 2002 ).
The size of samples for the different analyses has been taken into consideration. A model structure analysis with 30 observed variables needs a recommended minimum sample of 100 participants for 6 latent variables, and 200 for 5 latent variables (Soper, 2019 ). The samples used in the present research corresponded to these a priori calculations.
Finally, according to conventional rules of thumb (Hu & Bentler, 1999 ; Kline, 2011 ), acceptable and excellent model fits are indicated by CFI and TLI values greater than .90 and .95, respectively, by RMSEA values smaller than .08 (acceptable) and .06 (excellent), respectively, and SRMR values smaller than .08.
The main finding was the limited amount of variability in the answers to each item. Indeed, as Table 4 shows, respondents usually and mainly chose the answers agree and strongly agree , as indicated by the column of cumulated percentages of these response modalities (%). Thus, for all items, the average answer was higher than 4, except for item 11, the median was 4, and skewness and kurtosis indicators confirmed a systematic skewed on the left leptokurtic distribution. This lack of variability in the participants’ responses and the high average scores indicate nearly unanimous agreement with the propositions made about the meaning of work in the questionnaire.
Table 4 also shows that the items had good discriminatory power, expressed by corrected item-total correlations (calculated with all items) which were above .40 for all items. Finally, item analyses were concluded through the application of item response theory (Excel tools using the eirt add in; Valois, Houssemand, Germain, & Belkacem, 2011 ) which confirmed, by analyses of item characteristic curves (taking into account that item response theory models are parametric and assume that the item responses distributions follow a logistic function, Rasch, 1980 ; Streiner, Norman, & Cairney, 2015 , p. 297), the psychometric quality of each item and their link to an identical latent dimension. These different results confirmed the interest in keeping all items of the questionnaire in order to measure the work-meaning construct.
A five-factor solution was identified. This solution explained 58% of the total variance in the responses of the scale items; the TLI was .885, the RMSEA was .074, and the SRMR was .04. The structure revealed by this analysis was relatively simple (saturation of one main factor for each item; Thurstone, 1947 ), and the communality of each item was high, except for item 11. The solution we retained presented the best adequation fits and the most conceptual explanation concerning the latent factors. Additionally, the “EFAtools” R package confirmed the appropriateness of the chosen solution. Table 5 shows the EFA results, which described a five-factor structure.
Nevertheless, the correlation matrix for the latent factors obtained by the EFA (see Table 6 ) suggested the existence of a general second-order meaning of work factor, because the five factors were significantly correlated each with others. This result could be described as the existence of a general meaning of work factor, which alone would explain 44% of the total variance in the responses.
The internal consistency of each latent factor, estimated by Cronbach alpha and McDonald omega, was high (above .80) and very high for the entire scale (α = .96 and ω = .97). Thus, for S uccess and Recognition at work and from work ’ s factor ω was .93, for Usefulness ’s factor ω was .92, for Respect ’s factor ω was .91, for Value from and through work ’s factor ω was slightly lower and equal to .85, and finally for Remuneration ’ s factor for which ω was .87.
In order to improve the questionnaire, we applied a CFA to this five-factor model to improve the model fit and refine the latent dimensions of the questionnaire. We used CFA to (a) determine the relevance of this latent five-factor structure and (b) confirm the relevance of a general second-order meaning-of-work factor. Although this procedure might appear redundant at first glance, it enabled us to select a definitive latent structure in which each item represents only one latent factor (simple structure; Thurstone, 1947 ), whereas the EFA that was computed in the previous step showed that certain items loaded on several factors. The CFA also easily verified the existence of a second-order latent meaning of work factor (the first-order loadings were .894, .920, .873, .892, and .918, respectively). Thus, this CFA was computed to complement the previous analyses by refining the latent model proposed for the questionnaire.
According to conventional rules of thumb (Hu & Bentler, 1999 ; Kline, 2011 ), although the RMSEA value for the five-factor model was somewhat too high, the CFI and TLI values were excellent (χ 2 = 864.72, df = 400, RMSEA = .080, CFI = .989, TLI = .988). Table 7 presents the adequation fits for both solutions: a model with 5 first-order factors (as EFA suggests), and a model with 5 first-order factors and 1 second-order factor.
Figure 1 shows the model after the confirmatory test. This analysis confirmed the existence of a simple structure with five factors for the meaning of work scale and with a general, second-order factor of the meaning of work as suggested by the previous EFA.
Standardized solution of the structural model of the Meaning of Work Scale
The objective of this study was to verify the theoretical and psychometric structure of the meaning of work scale developed by Morin in recent years (Morin, 2003 ; Morin et al., 2001 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). This scale has the advantages of being rather short, of proposing a multidimensional structure for the meaning of work, and of making it possible to assess the coherence between the aspects of work that are personally valued and the actual characteristics of the work environment. Thus, it can be used diagnostically or to guide individuals. To establish the structure of this scale, we analyzed deeply the items, and we implemented exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, which we believe the scale’s authors had not carried out sufficiently. Moreover, we used a broad range of psychometric evaluation methods (traditional true score theory, item response theory, EFA, and structural equation modeling) to test the validity of the scale.
Item analyses confirmed results found in previous studies in which the meaning-of-work scale was administered. The majority of respondents agreed with the proposals of the questionnaire. Thus, this lack of variability is not specific to the present research and its sample (e.g., Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). Nevertheless, this finding can be explained by different reasons (which could be studied by other research) such as social desirability and the importance of work norms in industrial societies, or a lack of control regarding response bias.
The various versions of the latent structure of the scale proposed by the authors were not confirmed by the statistical analyses seen here. It nevertheless appears that this tool for assessing the meaning of work can describe and measure five different dimensions, all attached to a general factor. The first factor (F1), composed of nine items, is a dimension of recognition and success (e.g., item 17: work where your skills are recognized ; item 19: work where your results are recognized ; item 24: work that enables you to achieve the goals that you set for yourself ). It should thus be named Success and Recognition at work and from work and is comparable to dimensions from previous studies (personal success, Morin et al., 2001 ; social influence, Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). The second factor (F2), composed of seven items, is a dimension that represents the usefulness of work for an individual, whether that usefulness is social (e.g., Item 22: work that gives you the opportunity to serve others ) or personal (e.g., Item 28: work that enables you to be fulfilled ). It can be interpreted in terms of the Usefulness of work and generally corresponds to dimensions of the same name in earlier models (Morin, 2003 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ), although the definition used here is more precise. The third factor (F3), described by four items, refers to the Respect dimension of work (e.g., Item 5: work that respects human values ) and corresponds in part to the factors highlighted in prior studies (respect and rationalization of work, Morin, 2003 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). The fourth factor (F4), composed of four items, refers to the personal development dimension and Value from and through work (e.g., Item 2: work that enables you to learn or to improve ). It is in some ways similar to autonomy and effectiveness, described by the authors of the scale (Morin, 2003 ; Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). Finally, the fifth and final factor (F5), with six items, highlights the financial and, more important, personal benefits sought or received from work. This includes physical and material safety and the enjoyment of work (e.g., item 14: work you enjoy doing ). This dimension of Remuneration partially converges with the aspects of personal values related to work described in previous research (Morin et al., 2001 ). Although the structure of the scale highlighted here differed from previous studies, some theoretical elements were nevertheless consistent with each other. To be convinced of this, the Table 8 highlights possible overlaps.
A second important result of this study is the highlighting of a second-order factor by the statistical analyses carried out. This latent second-level factor refers to the existence of a general meaning of work dimension. This unitary conception of the meaning of work, subdivided into different linked facets, is not in contradiction with the different theories related to this construct. Thus, Ros et al. ( 1999 ) defined the meaning of work as a personal interpretation of experiences and interaction at work. This view of meaning of work can confer it a unitary functionality for maintaining psychological harmony, despite the destabilizing events that are often a feature of work. It must be considered as a permanent process of work adjustment or work adaptation. In order to be effective, this adjustment needs to remain consistent and to be globally oriented toward the cognitive balance between the reality of work and the meaning attributed to it. Thus, it has to keep a certain coherence which would explain the unitary conception of the meaning of work.
In addition to the purely statistical results of this study, whereas some partial overlap was found between the structural model in this study and structural models from previous work, this paper provides a much-needed updating and improvement of these dimensions, as we examined several theoretical meaning of work models in order to explain them psychologically. Indeed, the dimensions defined here as Success and Recognition , Usefulness , Respect , Value , and Remuneration from the meaning of work scale by Morin et al. ( 2001 ) have some strong similarities to other theoretical models on the meaning of work, even though the authors of the scale referred to these models only briefly. For example, the dimensions work centrality as a life role , societal norms regarding work , valued work outcomes , importance of work goals , and work-role identification (MOW International Research team, 1987 ) concur with the model described in the present study. In the same manner, the model by Rosso et al. ( 2010 ) has some similarities to the present structure, and there is a conceptual correspondence between the five dimensions found here and those from their study ( individuation , contribution , self-connection , and unification ). Finally, Baumeister’s ( 1991 ), Morin and Cherré’s ( 2004 ), and Sommer, Baumeister, and Stillman ( 2012 ) studies presented similar findings on the meaning of important life experiences for individuals; they described four essential needs that make such experiences coherent and reasonable ( purpose , efficacy - control , rectitude , and self - worth ). It is obvious that the parallels noted here were fostered by the conceptual breadth of the dimensions as defined in these models. In future research, much more precise definitions are needed. To do so, it will be essential to continue running analyses to test for construct validity by establishing convergent validity between the dimensions of the various existing meaning of work scales.
It is also interesting to note the proximity between the dimensions described here and those examined in studies on the dimensions that characterize the work context (Pignault & Houssemand, 2016 ) or in Karasek’s ( 1979 ) and Siegrist’s ( 1996 ) well-known models, for example, which determined the impact of work on health, stress, and well-being. These studies were able to clearly show how dimensions related to autonomy, support, remuneration, and esteem either contribute to health or harm it. These dimensions, which give meaning to work in a manner that is similar to the dimensions highlighted in the current study (Recognition, Value, and Remuneration in particular), are also involved in health. Thus, it would be interesting to verify the relations between these dimensions and measures of work health.
Thus, the conceptual dimensions of the meaning of work, as defined by Morin ( 2003 ) and Morin and Cherré ( 1999 ), remained of strong theoretical importance even if, at the empirical level, the scale created on this basis did not correspond exactly. The present study has had the modest merit of showing this interest, and also of proposing a new structure of the facets of this general dimension. One of the major interests of this research can be found in the possible better interpretations that this scale will enable to make. As mentioned above, the Morin’s scale is very frequently used in practice (e.g., in state employment agencies or by Human Resources departments), and the divergent models of previous studies could lead to individual assessments of the meaning of work diverging, depending on the reading grid chosen. Showing that a certain similarity in the structures of the meaning of work exists, and that a general factor of the meaning of work could be considered, the results of the current research can contribute to more precise use of this tool.
At this stage and in conclusion, it may be interesting to consider the reasons for the variations between the structures of the scale highlighted by the different studies. There were obviously the different changes applied to the different versions of the scale, but beyond that, three types of explanation could emerge. At the level of methods, the statistics used by the studies varied greatly, and could explain the variations observed. At the level of the respondents, work remains one of the most important elements of life in our societies. A certain temptation to overvalue its importance and purposes could be at the origin of the broad acceptance of all the proposals of the questionnaire, and the strong interactions between the sub-dimensions. Finally, at the theoretical level, if, as our study showed, a general dimension of meaning of work seems to exist, all the items, all the facets and all the first order factors of the scale, are strongly interrelated at each respective level. As well, small variations in the distribution of responses could lead to variations of the structure.
The principal contribution of this study is undoubtedly the use of confirmatory methods to test the descriptive models that were based on Morin’s scale (Morin, 2003 , 2006 ; Morin & Cherré, 1999 , 2004 ). The principal results confirm that the great amount of interest in this scale is not without merit and suggest its validity for use in research, both by practitioners (e.g., career counselors and Human Resources departments) and diagnostically. The results show a tool that assesses a general dimension and five subdimensions of the meaning of work with a 30-item questionnaire that has strong psychometric qualities. Conceptual differences from previous exploratory studies were brought to light, even though there were also certain similarities. Thus, the objectives of this study were met.
As with any research, this study also has a certain number of limitations. The first is the sample size used for statistical analyses. Even if the research design respected the general criteria for these kind of analyses (Soper, 2019 ), it will be necessary to repeat the study with larger samples. The second is the cultural and social character of the meaning of work, which was not addressed in this study because the sample was comprised of people working in France. They can thus be compared with those in Morin’s studies ( 2003 ) because of the linguistic proximity (French) of the samples, but differences in the structure of the scale could be due to cultural differences between America and Europe. Nevertheless, other different international populations should be questioned about their conception of the meaning of work in order to measure the impact of cultural and social aspects (England, 1991 ; England & Harpaz, 1990 ; Roe & Ester, 1999 ; Ruiz-Quintanilla & England, 1994 ; Topalova, 1994 ; Zanders, 1993 ). In the same vein, a third limitation involves the homogeneity of the respondents’ answers. Indeed, there was quasi-unanimous agreement with all of the items describing work (see Table 4 and previous results, Morin & Cherré, 2004 ). It is worth examining whether this lack of variance results from a work norm that is central and promoted in industrialized countries as it might mask broader interindividual differences. Thus, this study’s protocol should be repeated with other samples from different cultures. Finally, a fourth limitation that was mentioned previously involves the validity of the scale. Concerning the content validity and because some items loaded similarly different factors, it could be interesting to verify the wording content of the items, and potentially modify or replace some of them. The purpose of the present study was not to change the content of the scale but to suggest how future studies could analyze this point. Concerning the construct validity, this first phase of validation needs to be followed by other phases that involve tests of convergent validity between the existing meaning of work scales as well as tests of discriminant validity in order to confirm the existence of the meaning of work construct examined here. In such studies, the centrality of work (Warr, 2008 ; Warr, Cook, & Wall, 1979 ) should be used to confirm the validity of the meaning of work scale. Other differential, individual, and psychological variables related to work (e.g., performance, motivation, well-being) should also be introduced in order to expand the understanding of whether relations exist between the set of psychological concepts involved in work and individuals’ jobs.
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author.
Confirmatory factor analyses
Comparative Fit Index
Exploratory factor analyses
Luxembourg Agency for Research Integrity
Tucker Lewis Index of factoring reliability
Root mean square error of approximation
Standardized root mean square residual
Aronsson, G., Bejerot, E., & Häremstam, A. (1999). Healthy work: Ideal and reality among public and private employed academics in Sweden. Personal Public Management , 28 (2), 197–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/009102609902800203 .
Article Google Scholar
Barberá, P., & Zeitzoff, T. (2018). The new public address system: why do world leaders adopt social media? International Studies Quarterly , 62 (1), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqx047 .
Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Meaning of life . New York: Guilford.
Google Scholar
Bendassolli, P. F., & Borges-Andrade, J. E. (2013). Meaningfulness in work in Brazilian and French creative industries. Spanish Journal of Psychology , 16 , 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2013.107 .
Bendassolli, P. F., Borges-Andrade, J. E., Coelho Alves, J. S., & de Lucena Torres, T. (2015). Meaningful work scale in creative industries: A confirmatory factor analysis. Psico-USF , 20 (1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-82712015200101 .
Brief, A. P. (1991). MOW revisited: A brief commentary. European Work and Organizational Psychology , 1 , 176–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602009108408523 .
Brief, A. P., & Nord, W. R. (1990). Meaning of occupational work . Toronto: Lexington Books.
Carroll, J. B. (1961). The nature of the data, or how to choose a correlation coefficient. Psychometrika , 26 , 247–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02289768 .
Dawis, R. V., Lofquist, L. H., & Weiss, D. J. (1968). A theory of work adjustment (a revision). Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation, XXIII , 47 , 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-013391-1.50030-4 .
England, G. W. (1991). The meaning of working in USA: Recent changes. The European Work and Organizational Psychologist , 1 , 111–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1990.tb01036.x
England, G. W., & Harpaz, I. (1990). How working is defined: National contexts and demographic and organizational role influences. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 11 , 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030110402 .
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance , 16 , 250–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7 .
Harman, H. H. (1960). Modern Factor Analysis . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Harpaz, I. (1986). The factorial structure of the meaning of work. Human Relations , 39 , 595–614. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872678603900701 .
Harpaz, I., & Fu, X. (2002). The structure of the meaning of work: A relative stability amidst change. Human Relations , 55 , 639–−668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726702556002 .
Harpaz, I., & Meshoulam, I. (2010). The meaning of work, employment relations, and strategic human resources management in Israel. Human Resource Management Review , 20 , 212–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.08.009 .
Heider, F. (1946). Attitudes and cognitive organization. Journal of Psychology , 21 , 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1946.9917275 .
Hoblingre Klein, H. (2018). Réseaux sociaux professionnels: instruments d’empowerment professionnel ?: Analyse de cas de consultants RH et de recruteurs sur LinkedIn. PhD manuscript, Education, Université de Strasbourg. Retrieved from https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02133972 .
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling , 6 , 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 .
Jöreskog, K. G. (2003). Factor analysis by MINRES. Retrieved from http://www.ssicentral.com/lisrel/techdocs/minres.pdf
Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly , 24 , 285–308. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392498 .
Ketchum, L. D., & Trist, E. (1992). All teams are not created equal. How employee empowerment really works . Newbury Park: Sage.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practices of structural equation modeling , (3rd ed., ). New-York: Guilford.
Li, C. H. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data: Comparing robust maximum likelihood diagonally weighted least squares. Behavior Research Method , 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0619-7 .
Lips-Wiersma, M., & Wright, S. (2012). Measuring the meaning of meaningful work: Development and validation of the Comprehensive Meaningful Work Scale (CMWS). Group & Organization Management , 37 (5), 655–685. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601112461578 .
Lubke, G. H., & Muthén, B. O. (2004). Applying multigroup confirmatory factor models for continuous outcomes to Likert scale data complicates meaningful group comparisons. Structural Equation Modeling , 11 , 514–534. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1104_2 .
McKee-Ryan, F., Song, Z., Wanberg, C. R., & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: A meta- analytic study. Journal of Applied Psychology , 90 , 53–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.53 .
Morin, E. (2003). Sens du travail. Définition, mesure et validation. In C. Vandenberghe, N. Delobbe, & G. Karnas (Eds.), Dimensions individuelles et sociales de l’investissement professionnel , (pp. 11–20). Louvain: Presses Universitaires de Louvain.
Morin, E. (2006). Donner un sens au travail. In Document—Centre de recherche et d’intervention pour le travail, l’efficacité organisationnelle et la santé (CRITEOS), HEC Montréal .
Morin, E. (2008). Sens du travail, santé mentale et engagement organisationnel . Montréal: IRSST.
Morin, E., Archambault, M., & Giroux, H. (2001). Projet Qualité de Vie au Travail. Rapport Final . Montréal: HEC Montréal.
Morin, E., & Cherré, B. (1999). Les cadres face au sens du travail. Revue Française de Gestion , 126 , 83–93. https://doi.org/10.3166/rfg.251.149-164 .
Morin, E., & Cherré, B. (2004). Réorganiser le travail et lui donner du sens. In A. Lancry, & C. Lemoine (Eds.), La personne et ses rapports au travail , (pp. 87–102). Paris: L’Harmattan.
Morse, N. C., & Weiss, R. S. (1955). The function and meaning of work and the job. American Sociological Review , 20 , 191–198. https://doi.org/10.2307/2088325 .
MOW International Research team (1987). The meaning of working . London: Academic Press.
Muthén, B. (1984). A general structural equation model with dichotomous, ordered categorical, and continuous latent variable indicators. Psychometrika , 49 , 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02294210 .
Muthén, L. K., & Kaplan, D. (1985). A comparison of some methodologies for the factor analysis of non-normal Likert variables. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology , 38 , 171–189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8317.1985.tb00832.x .
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide , (6th ed., ). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.
Osborne, J. W. & Fitzpatrick, D. C. (2012). Replication analysis in exploratory factor analysis: what it is and why it makes your analysis better. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation , 17 (15), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.7275/h0bd-4d11 .
Osgood, C. E., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1955). The principle of congruity in the perception of attitude change. Psychological Review , 62 , 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048153 .
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Pignault, A., & Houssemand, C. (2016). Construction and initial validation of the Work Context Inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior , 92 , 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.11.006 .
Pratt, M. G., & Ashforth, B. E. (2003). Fostering meaningfulness in working and at work. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship , (pp. 309–327). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Rasch, G. (1980). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Roe, R. A., & Ester, P. (1999). Values and Work: Empirical findings and theoretical perspective. Applied Psychology: An international review , 48 ( 1 ), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1999.tb00046.x .
Ros, M., Schwartz, S. H., & Surkiss, S. (1999). Basic individual values, work values, and meaning of work. Applied Psychology: An international review , 48 (1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1999.tb00048.x .
Rosso, B. D., Dekas, K. H., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2010). On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review. Research in Organizational Behavior , 30 , 91–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.001 .
Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. A. & England, G. W. (1994). How working is defined: Structure and stability. Working paper, Cornell University.
Siegrist, J. A. (1996). Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 1 , 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.1.1.27 .
Sommer, K. L., Baumeister, R. F., & Stillman, T. F. (2012). The construction of meaning from life events: Empirical studies of personal narratives. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The Human Quest for Meaning , (pp. 297–314). New York: Routledge.
Soper, D.S. (2019). A-priori sample size calculator for structural equation models [Software]. Available from http://www.danielsoper.com/statcalc .
Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. (1979). Work and motivation: An evaluative summary. In R. M. Steers, & L. Porter (Eds.), Motivation and work behaviour , (pp. 555–564). New-York: McGraw-Hill.
Steger, M. F., Dik, B. J., & Duffy, R. D. (2012). Measuring meaningful work: The work and meaning inventory (WAMI). Journal of Career Assessment , 20 (3), 322–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072711436160 .
Streiner, D. L., Norman, G. R., & Cairney, J. (2015). Health measurement scales. Oxford Medicine Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199685219.001.0001 .
Super, D. E., & Sverko, B. (1995). Life roles, values, and careers . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Sverko, B. (1989). Origin of individual differences in importance attached to work: A model and a contribution to its evaluation. Journal of Vocational Behavior , 34 , 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(89)90062-6 .
Sverko, B., & Vizek-Vidovic, V. (1995). Studies of the meaning of work: Approaches, models, models and some of the findings. In D. E. Super, & B. Sverko (Eds.), Life roles, values, and Careers , (pp. 3–21). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Thurstone, L. L. (1947). Multiple-factor analysis . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Topalova, V. (1994). Changes in the attitude to work and unemployment during the period of social transition. In R. A. Roe, & V. Russinova (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of employment: European perspectives , (pp. 21–28). Tilburg: Tilburg University Press.
Valois, P., Houssemand, C., Germain, S., & Belkacem, A. (2011). An open source tool to verify the psychometric properties of an evaluation instrument. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences , 15 , 552–556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.140 .
Wanberg, C.R. (2012) The Individual Experience of Unemployment. Annual Review of Psychology, 63 (1), 369-396. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100500
Warr, P. (2008). Work values: Some demographic and cultural correlates. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology , 81 , 751–775. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317907x263638 .
Warr, P. B., Cook, J. D., & Wall, T. D. (1979). Scales of measurement of some work attitudes and aspects of psychological well-being. Journal of Occupational Psychology , 52 , 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1979.tb00448.x .
Wrzesniewski, A., Dutton, J. E., & Debebe, G. (2003). Interpersonal sensemaking and the meaning of work. Research in Organizational Behavior , 25 , 93–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-3085(03)25003-6 .
Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers, and callings: people’s relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality , 31 , 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2162 .
Yang, C., Nay, S., & Hoyle, R. H. (2010). Three approaches to using lengthy ordinal scales in structural equation models. Parceling, latent scoring, and shortening scales. Applied Psychological Measurement , 34 , 122–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621609338592 .
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Yu, C.-Y. (2002). Evaluating cutoff criteria of model fit indices for latent variable models with binary and continuous outcomes. Dissertation . Los Angeles: University of California.
Zanders, H. (1993). Changing work values. In P. Ester, L. Halman, & R. de Moor (Eds.), The individualizing society. Value changes in Europe and North-America , (pp. 129–153). Tilburg: Tilburg University Press.
Download references
Not applicable.
No funding.
Authors and affiliations.
Université de Lorraine, Psychology & Neuroscience Laboratory (2LPN, EA7489), 23 boulevard Albert 1er, 54000, Nancy, France
Anne Pignault
University of Luxembourg, Department of Education and Social Work, Institute for Lifelong Learning & Guidance (LLLG), 2 Avenue de l’Université, L-4365, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
Claude Houssemand
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Both the authors are responsible for study conceptualization, data collection, data preparation, data analysis and report writing. The original questionnaire is a public one. No permission is required. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Anne Pignault .
Ethics approval and consent to participate.
Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The Luxembourg Agency for Research Integrity (LARI) specifies that according to Code de la santé publique - Article L1123-7, it appears that France does not require research ethics committee (Les Comités de Protection des Personnes (CPP)) approval if the research is non-biomedical, non-interventional, observational, and does not collect personal health information. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. At the beginning of the questionnaire, the participants had to give their consent that the data could be used for research purposes, and they had to consent to the publication of the results of the study. Participation was voluntary and confidential. No potentially identifiable human images or data is presented in this study.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Publisher’s note.
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .
Reprints and permissions
Cite this article.
Pignault, A., Houssemand, C. What factors contribute to the meaning of work? A validation of Morin’s Meaning of Work Questionnaire. Psicol. Refl. Crít. 34 , 2 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-020-00167-4
Download citation
Received : 19 March 2020
Accepted : 30 November 2020
Published : 04 January 2021
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-020-00167-4
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
If you are looking for a way to conduct a research study while optimizing your resources, desk research is a great option. Desk research uses existing data from various sources, such as books, articles, websites, and databases, to answer your research questions.
Let’s explore desk research methods and tips to help you select the one for your research.
Desk research, also known as secondary research or documentary research, is a type of research that relies on data that has already been collected and published by others. Its data sources include public libraries, websites, reports, surveys, journals, newspapers, magazines, books, podcasts, videos, and other sources.
When performing desk research, you are not gathering new information from primary sources such as interviews, observations, experiments, or surveys. The information gathered will then be used to make informed decisions.
The most common use cases for desk research are market research , consumer behavior , industry trends , and competitor analysis .
Here are the most common use cases for desk research:
There are two main types of desk research methods: qualitative and quantitative.
Analyzing non-numerical data, such as texts, images, audio, or video. Here are some examples of qualitative desk research methods:
Content analysis – Examining the content and meaning of texts, such as articles, books, reports, or social media posts. It uses data to help you identify themes, patterns, opinions, attitudes, emotions, or biases.
Discourse analysis – Studying the use of language and communication in texts, such as speeches, interviews, conversations, or documents. It helps you understand how language shapes reality, influences behavior, constructs identities, creates power relations, and more.
Narrative analysis – Analyzing the stories and narratives that people tell in texts, such as biographies, autobiographies, memoirs, or testimonials. This allows you to explore how people make sense of their experiences, express their emotions, construct their identities, or cope with challenges.
Analyzing numerical data, such as statistics, graphs, charts, or tables.
Here are common examples of quantitative desk research methods:
Statistical analysis : This method involves applying mathematical techniques and tools to numerical data, such as percentages ratios, averages, correlations, or regressions.
You can use statistical analysis to measure, describe, compare, or test relationships in the data.
Meta-analysis : Combining and synthesizing the results of multiple studies on a similar topic or question. Meta-analysis can help you increase the sample size, reduce the margin of error, or identify common findings or discrepancies in data.
Trend analysis : This method involves examining the changes and developments in numerical data over time, such as sales, profits, prices, or market share. It helps you identify patterns, cycles, fluctuations, or anomalies.
Here are some real-life examples of desk research questions:
You can use the secondary data sources listed below to answer these questions:
Industry reports and publications
The main factors for selecting a desk research method are:
Let’s say your research question requires an in-depth analysis of a particular topic, a literature review may be the best method. But if the research question requires analysis of large data sets, you can use trend analysis.
The main difference between primary research and desk research is the source of data. Primary research uses data that is collected directly from the respondents or participants of the study. Desk research uses data that is collected by someone else for a different purpose.
Another key difference is the cost and time involved. Primary research is usually more expensive, time-consuming, and resource-intensive than desk research. However, it can also provide you with more specific, accurate, and actionable data that is tailored to your research goal and question.
The best practice is to use desk-based research before primary research; it refines the scope of the work and helps you optimize resources.
Read Also – Primary vs Secondary Research Methods: 15 Key Differences
Here are the four main steps to conduct desk research:
What do you want to achieve with your desk research? What problem do you want to solve or what opportunity do you want to explore? What specific question do you want to answer with your desk research?
Where can you find relevant data for your desk research? How relevant and current are the data sources for your research? How consistent and comparable are they with each other?
You can evaluate your data sources based on factors such as-
– Authority: Who is the author or publisher of the data source? What are their credentials and reputation? Are they experts or credible sources on the topic?
– Accuracy: How accurate and precise is the data source? Does it contain any errors or mistakes? Is it supported by evidence or references?
– Objectivity: How objective and unbiased is the data source? Does it present facts or opinions? Does it have any hidden agenda or motive?
– Coverage: How comprehensive and complete is the data source? Does it cover all aspects of your topic? Does it provide enough depth and detail?
– Currency: How current and up-to-date is the data source? When was it published or updated? Is it still relevant to your topic?
How can you collect your data efficiently and effectively? What tools or techniques can you use to organize and analyze your data? How can you interpret your data with your research goal and question?
How can you communicate your findings clearly and convincingly? What format or medium can you use to accurately record your findings?
You can use spreadsheets, presentation slides, charts, infographics, and more.
It is cheaper and faster than primary research, you don’t have to collect new data or report them. You can simply analyze and leverage your findings to make deductions.
Desk research provides you with a broad and thorough overview of the research topic and related issues. This helps to avoid duplication of efforts and resources by using existing data.
Using desk research, you can compare and contrast various perspectives and opinions on the same topic. This enhances the credibility and validity of your research by referencing authoritative sources.
It helps you to identify new trends and patterns in the data that may not be obvious from primary research. This can help you see knowledge and research gaps to offer more effective solutions.
One of the main challenges of desk research is that the data may not be relevant, accurate, or up-to-date for the specific research question or purpose. Desk research relies on data that was collected for a different reason or context, which may not match the current needs or goals of the researcher.
Another limitation of desk research is that it may not provide enough depth or insight into qualitative aspects of the market, such as consumer behavior, preferences, motivations, or opinions.
Data obtained from existing sources may be biased or incomplete due to the agenda or perspective of the source.
Read More – Research Bias: Definition, Types + Examples
It may also be inconsistent or incompatible with other data sources due to different definitions or methodologies.
Desk research data may also be difficult to access or analyze due to legal, ethical, or technical issues.
Here are some tips on how to use desk research effectively:
Desk research should not be used as a substitute for primary research, but rather as a complement or supplement. Combine it with primary research methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and others to obtain a more complete and accurate picture of your research topic.
Desk research is a cost-effective tool for gaining insights into your research topic. Although it has limitations, if you choose the right method and carry out your desk research effectively, you will save a lot of time, money, and effort that primary research would require.
Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!
You may also like:
Introduction Thematic Analysis is a qualitative research method that plays a crucial role in understanding and interpreting data. It...
Introduction Judgment sampling is a type of non-random sampling method used in survey research and data collection. It is a method in...
After strategically positioning your product in the market to generate awareness and interest in your target audience, the next step is...
Introduction When you’re conducting a survey, you need to find out what people think about things. But how do you get an accurate and...
Collect data the right way with a versatile data collection tool. try formplus and transform your work productivity today..
What are research implications, why discuss research implications, types of implications in research, how do you present research implications.
Every scientific inquiry is built on previous studies and lays the groundwork for future research. The latter is where discussion of research implications lies. Researchers are expected not only to present what their findings suggest about the phenomenon being studied but also what the findings mean in a broader context.
In this article, we'll explore the nature of research implications as a means for contextualizing the findings of qualitative research and the foundation it sets for further research.
Research implications include any kind of discussion of what a particular study means for its research field and in general terms. Researchers write implications to lay out future research studies, make research recommendations based on proposed theoretical developments, and discuss practical and technological implications that can be applied in the real world.
To put it another way, research implications are intended to answer the question "what does this research mean?". Research implications look forward and out. Once findings are presented and discussed, the researcher lays out what the findings mean in a broader context and how they could guide subsequent research.
An aspect of academic writing that's related to implications is the discussion of the study's limitations. These limitations differ from implications in that they explore already acknowledged shortcomings in a study (e.g., a small sample size, an inherent weakness in a chosen methodological approach), but these limitations can also suggest how future research could address these shortcomings. Both the implications and recommendations are often coupled with limitations in a discussion section to explain the significance of the study's contributions to scientific knowledge.
Strictly speaking, there is a fine line between limitations and implications, one that a traditional approach to the scientific method may not adequately explore. Under the scientific method, the product of any research study addresses its research questions or confirms or challenges its expected outcomes. Fulfilling just this task, however, may overlook a more important step in the research process in terms of demonstrating significance.
One of the more famous research examples can provide useful insight. Galileo's experiments with falling objects allowed him to answer questions raised by Aristotle's understanding about gravity affecting objects of different weights. Galileo had something of a hypothesis - objects should fall at the same speed regardless of weight - based on a critique of then-current scientific knowledge - Aristotle's assertion about gravity - that he wanted to test in research. By conducting different experiments using inclines and pendulums (and supposedly one involving falling objects from the Tower of Pisa), he established a new understanding about gravity and its relationship (or lack thereof) to the weight of objects.
Discussion of that experiment focused on how the findings challenged Aristotle's understanding of physics. It did not, however, pose the next logical question: Why would an object like a feather fall at a much slower rate of descent than an object like a hammer if weight was not a factor?
Galileo's experiment and other similar experiments laid the groundwork for experiments on air resistance, most famously the Apollo 15 experiment on the moon where a feather and hammer fell at the same rate in a vacuum, absent any air resistance. The limitation Galileo had at the time was the inability to create a vacuum to test any theories about gravity and air resistance. The implications of his experiments testing Aristotle's claims include the call to further research that could eventually confirm or challenge his understanding of falling objects.
In formal scientific research, particularly in academic settings where peer review is an essential component, contemporary researchers are supposed to do more than simply report their findings. They are expected to engage in critical reflection in placing their research findings in a broader context. The peer review process in research publication often assesses the quality of a research paper by its ability to detail the significance of a given research study. Without an explicit description of the implications in research, readers may not necessarily know what importance the study and its findings holds for them.
Download a free trial of our powerful analysis platform to generate critical insights from your research.
Breaking down the kinds of implications that your research findings might have will be useful in crafting a clearer and more persuasive presentation. More important than saying that the findings are compelling is arguing in what aspects the findings should prove useful.
There are different types of implications, and the type you should emphasize depends on your target audience.
When research findings present novel scientific knowledge, it should have an influence on existing theories by affirming, contradicting, or contextualizing them. This can mean the proposal of a brand new theoretical framework or developments to a existing one.
Keep in mind that, in qualitative research , researchers will often contextualize a theory rather than confirm or refute it. This means that a theory or conceptual framework that is applied to an unfamiliar context (e.g., a theory about adolescent development in a study involving graduate students) will undergo some sort of transformation due to the new analysis.
New understandings will likely develop more complex descriptions of theories as they are interpreted and re-interpreted in new contexts. The discussion of theoretical implications here requires researchers to consider how new theoretical developments might be applied to new data in future research.
More applied forums are interested in how a study's findings can be used in the real world. New developments in psychology could yield discussion of applications in psychiatry, while research in physics can lead to technological innovations in engineering and architecture. While some researchers focus on developing theory, others conduct research to generate actionable insights and tangible results for stakeholders.
Education research, for example, may present pathways to a new teaching method or assessment of learining outcomes. Theories about how students passively and actively develop expertise in subject-matter knowledge could eventually prompt scholars and practitioners to change existing pedagogies and materials that account for more novel understandings of teaching and learning.
Exploring the practical dimensions of research findings may touch on political implications such as policy recommendations, marketable technologies, or novel approaches to existing methods or processes. Discussion of implications along these lines is meant to promote further research and activity in the field to support these practical developments.
Qualitative research methods are always under constant development and innovation. Moreover, applying research methods in new contexts or for novel research inquiries can lead to unanticipated results that might cause a researcher to reflect on and iterate on their methods of data collection and analysis .
Critical reflections on research methods are not meant to assert that the study was conducted without the necessary rigor . However, rigorous and transparent researchers are expected to argue that further iterations of the research that address any methodological gaps can only bolster the persuasiveness of the findings or generate richer insights.
There are many possible avenues for implications in terms of innovating on methodology. Does the nature of your interview questions change when interviewing certain populations? Should you change certain practices when collecting data in an ethnography to establish rapport with research participants ? How does the use of technology influence the collection and analysis of data?
All of these questions are worth discussing, with the answers providing useful guidance to those who want to base their own study design on yours. As a result, it's important to devote some space in your paper or presentation to how you conducted your study and what you would do in future iterations of your study to bolster its research rigor.
Presenting research implications or writing research implications in a research paper is a matter of answering the following question: Why should scholars read or pay attention to your research? Especially in the social sciences, the potential impact of a study is not always a foregone conclusion. In other words, to make the findings as insightful and persuasive to your audience as they are to you, you need to persuade them beyond the presentation of the analysis and the insights generated.
Here are a few main principles to achieve this task. In broad terms, they focus on what the findings mean to you, what it should mean to others, and what those impacts might mean in context.
Academic research writing tends to follow a structure that narrates a study from the researcher's motivation to conduct the research to why the research's findings matter. While there's seldom a strict requirement for sections in a paper or presentation, understanding commonly used patterns in academic writing will point out where the research implications are discussed.
If you look at a typical research paper abstract in a peer-reviewed journal , for example, you might find that the last sentence or two explicitly establishes why the research is useful to motivate readers to look at the paper more deeply. In the body of the paper, this is further explained in detail towards the end of the introduction and discussion sections and in the conclusion section. These areas are where you should focus on detailing the research implications and explaining how you perceive the impact of your study.
It's essential that you use these spaces to highlight why the findings matter to you. As mentioned earlier, this impact should never be assumed to be understood. Rather, you should explain in detail how your initial motivation to conduct the research has been satisfied and how you might use what you have learned from the research in theoretical and practical terms.
Research is partly about sharing expertise and partly about understanding your audience. Scientific knowledge is generated through consensus, and the more that the researcher ensures their implications are understood by their audience, the more it will resonate in the field.
A good strategy for tailoring your research paper to a particular journal is to read its articles for the implications that are explored in the research. Applied journals will focus on more practical implications while more theoretical publications will emphasize theoretical or conceptual frameworks for other scholars to rely on. As a result, there's no need to detail every single possible implication from your study; simply describing those implications that are most relevant to your audience is often sufficient.
One of the easier ways to persuade readers of the potential implications of your research is to provide concrete examples that are simple to understand.
Think about a study that interviews children, for example, where the methodological implications dwell on establishing an emotional connection before collecting data. This might include practical considerations such as bringing toys or conducting the interview in a setting familiar to them like their classroom so they are comfortable during data collection. Explicitly detailing this example can guide scholars in useful takeaways for their research design.
Analyze your qualitative data with ease using ATLAS.ti. Start with a free trial today.
The world can take a major step to meeting the goals of the Paris Climate Accord by focusing on 63 cases where climate policies have had the most impact, new research has revealed. The findings have been published today in Science .
Our results inform contentious policy debates in three main ways. First, we show evidence for the effectiveness of policy mixes. Second our findings highlight that successful policy mixes vary across sectors and that policy-makers should focus on sector-specific best practices. Third our results stress that effective policies vary with economic development. Study co-author Dr Moritz Schwarz , an Associate at the Climate Econometrics Programme at the University of Oxford
The study, led by Climate Econometricians at the University of Oxford, the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), and the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change (MCC), analysed 1,500 observed policies documented in a novel, high quality, OECD climate policy database for effectiveness. It is the first time a global dataset of policies has been compared and ranked in this way.
Using a methodology developed by Climate Econometrics at The Institute for New Economic Thinking at the Oxford Martin School (INET Oxford), the researchers measured ‘emission breaks’ that followed policy interventions. The break detection methodology, called indicator saturation estimation, developed at Climate Econometrics, allows break indicators for all possible dates to be examined objectively using a variant of machine learning.
The results were sobering: Across four sectors, 41 countries, two decades and 1,500 policies, only 63 successful policy interventions with large effects were identified, which reduced total emissions between 0.6 and 1.8 Gt CO2.
However, the authors say the good news is that policymakers can learn from the 63 effective cases where climate policies had led to meaningful reductions to get back on track.
The researchers have made the data available to policy-makers across the world, and have produced a sector by sector, country by country data visualisation in a dashboard .
Overall, the Team concluded:
Scaling up good practice policies identified in this study to other sectors and other parts of the world can in the short term be a powerful climate mitigation strategy…The dashboard that we make available to policy-makers provides an accessible platform to conduct country-by-country, sector-by-sector comparisons and to find a suitable policy mix for different situations. Study co-author Professor Felix Pretis , Co-Director of the Climate Econometrics Programme at Nuffield College, University of Oxford
Study co-author Ebba Mark , researcher at the Calleva Project at INET Oxford, said the world needed to get back on track to meeting the Paris Climate Accord targets. ‘Meeting the Paris Climate objectives necessitates decisive policy action and this research shows the way. Data from the UN estimates that there remains a median emissions gap of 23 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030 . The persistence of this emissions gap is caused not only by an ambition gap but also a gap in the outcomes that adopted policies achieve in terms of emissions reductions.’
What works: Examples from the UK and USA
The country by country analysis showed that the UK has made very successful progress in the electricity sector, with two adjacent breaks detected following the mid-2013 introduction of a carbon price floor that imposed a minimum price for UK power producers. However, the study did not find in other UK sectors any major emission reductions following a policy intervention beyond what would be expected based on long-term economic and population dynamics.
The US has managed to reduce carbon emissions in the transport sector following actions taken in the aftermath of the financial crisis. While successful policy implementation in the transport sector is generally difficult and hence can be viewed as a positive example for the climate policy globally, the lack of any further climate policy successes in other sectors points to huge remaining challenges in the power sector or industry.
Dr Anupama Sen , Head of Policy Engagement at the Oxford Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment said: ' In more than 80% of investments the total lifetime cost of a clean technology is considerably lower than that of a fossil technology. While the new UK government’s policies are moving in the right direction, they need to go further and faster to unlock these lower costs. New Oxford research now provides evidence that an optimal mix of policies can achieve this, and rapidly lower a country’s emissions.'
Further analysis can be found in INET Oxford’s accompanying Insight brief .
The study ‘Climate policies that achieved major emission reductions: Global evidence from two decades’ has been published in Science .
You can view all news or browse by category
How to stop self-medicating depression, anxiety, and stress.
Stress relief guide, social support for stress relief, 12 ways to reduce stress with music, surviving tough times by building resilience.
Are you or someone you know in crisis?
Signs and symptoms of burnout, the difference between stress and burnout, burnout vs. depression, stages of burnout, causes of burnout, how to deal with burnout, tip 1: turn to other people, tip 2: reframe the way you look at work, tip 3: reevaluate your priorities, tip 4: make exercise a priority, tip 5: support your mood and energy levels with a healthy diet, burnout symptoms, treatment, and tips on how to deal.
If constant stress has you feeling helpless, disillusioned, and completely exhausted, you may be on the road to burnout. Learn what you can do to regain your balance and feel positive and hopeful again.
Burnout is a state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress . It occurs when you feel overwhelmed, emotionally drained, and unable to meet constant demands. As the stress continues, you begin to lose the interest and motivation that led you to take on a certain role in the first place.
Burnout reduces productivity and saps your energy, leaving you feeling increasingly helpless, hopeless, cynical, and resentful. Eventually, you may feel like you have nothing more to give.
The negative effects of burnout spill over into every area of life—including your home, work, and social life. Burnout can also cause long-term changes to your body that make you vulnerable to illnesses like colds and flu. Because of its many consequences, it’s important to deal with burnout right away.
You may be on the road to burnout if:
Most of us have days when we feel helpless, overloaded, or unappreciated—when dragging ourselves out of bed requires the determination of Hercules. If you feel like this most of the time, however, you may be burned out.
Burnout is a gradual process. It doesn’t happen overnight, but it can creep up on you. The signs and symptoms are subtle at first, but become worse as time goes on. Think of the early symptoms as red flags that something is wrong that needs to be addressed. If you pay attention and actively reduce your stress , you can prevent a major breakdown. If you ignore them, you’ll eventually burn out.
Burnout may be the result of unrelenting stress, but it isn’t the same as too much stress. Stress, by and large, involves too much: too many pressures that demand too much of you physically and mentally. However, stressed people can still imagine that if they can just get everything under control, they’ll feel better.
Burnout, on the other hand, is about not enough. Being burned out means feeling empty and mentally exhausted, devoid of motivation, and beyond caring. People experiencing burnout often don’t see any hope of positive change in their situations. If excessive stress feels like you’re drowning in responsibilities, burnout is a sense of being all dried up. And while you’re usually aware of being under a lot of stress, you don’t always notice burnout when it happens.
Burnout and depression can also be difficult to tell apart, and some of the symptoms can overlap. For example, whether you’re depressed or burned out, you might feel exhausted or have a hard time focusing. Burnout can also be a risk factor for depression . However, the two conditions have important differences.
Burnout | Depression |
---|---|
Not diagnosed as a medical condition. | Medically diagnosed condition. |
Caused by external stressors, such as work, parenting, or caregiving tasks. | Caused by a combination of genetic, psychological, and environmental factors. |
May not have energy for hobbies or interests. | May no longer find enjoyment in hobbies or interests. |
Negative feelings may primarily relate to work, school, parenting, caregiving, or other specific source of stress. | Negative feelings may relate to every area of life. |
Recovery involves managing stressors, such as taking a vacation from work or delegating caregiving tasks. | may involve medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes. |
Researchers have used several models to chart the development of burnout symptoms. For example, one model follows 12 stages, starting with a desire to prove oneself in a specific task and then advancing to unhealthier behaviors, such as neglecting self-care. Eventually, this leads toward the later stages, including feelings of emptiness and depression.
Another model simplifies burnout progression to five stages:
Stage 1 (Honeymoon Phase): You feel committed to an endeavor, whether you’ve just gotten a new job, a promotion, enrolled in a class, or started parenting or caregiving. You’re ready to accept new responsibilities and eager to prove yourself. You may feel creative, productive, and energized.
Stage 2 (Stress Onset): As the stress of your new responsibilities begins to take its toll, you start to neglect your self-care needs. Your sleep quality diminishes. Anxiety shows up more often, along with irritability, headaches, and fatigue. You become less productive, have a harder time focusing, and try to avoid making decisions.
Stage 3 (Chronic Stress): You’re consistently tired and feel cynical or apathetic. Social issues can also crop up. You may withdraw from coworkers or feel resentful toward your loved ones. You might frequently procrastinate or use drugs or alcohol to self-medicate , even as you deny the problem.
Stage 4 (Burnout): At this point, you feel pessimistic about the future and obsessed with any problems that crop up. You’re neglecting your personal health, and that comes with physical problems like gastrointestinal issues and chronic headaches. You’re plagued by self-doubt and look to socially isolate yourself.
Stage 5 (Habitual Burnout): Your sense of well-being reaches a low. You’re always sad and mentally and physically fatigued. Depression may develop here.
Burnout often stems from your job. But anyone who feels overworked and undervalued is at risk for burnout, from the hardworking office worker who hasn’t had a vacation in years, to the frazzled stay-at-home mom tending to kids, housework, and an aging parent .
But burnout is not caused solely by stressful work or too many responsibilities. Other factors contribute to burnout, including your lifestyle and personality traits. In fact, what you do in your downtime and how you look at the world can play just as big of a role in causing overwhelming stress as work or home demands.
Whether you recognize the warning signs of impending burnout or you’re already past the breaking point, trying to push through the exhaustion and continuing as you have been will only cause further emotional and physical damage. Now is the time to pause and change direction by learning how you can help yourself overcome burnout and feel healthy and positive again.
Dealing with burnout requires the “Three R” approach:
Recognize. Watch for the warning signs of burnout.
Reverse. Undo the damage by seeking support and managing stress.
Resilience. Build your resilience to stress by taking care of your physical and emotional health.
The following tips for preventing or dealing with burnout can help you cope with symptoms and regain your energy, focus, and sense of well-being.
When you’re burned out, problems seem insurmountable, everything looks bleak, and it’s difficult to muster up the energy to care, let alone take action to help yourself. But you have a lot more control over stress than you may think. There are positive steps you can take to deal with overwhelming stress and get your life back into balance. One of the most effective is to reach out to others.
Social contact is nature’s antidote to stress and talking face to face with a good listener is one of the fastest ways to calm your nervous system and relieve stress. The person you talk to doesn’t have to be able to “fix” your stressors; they just have to be a good listener, someone who’ll listen attentively without becoming distracted or expressing judgment.
[Read: Social Support for Stress Relief]
Reach out to those closest to you, such as your partner, family, and friends. Opening up won’t make you a burden to others. In fact, most friends and loved ones will be flattered that you trust them enough to confide in them, and it will only strengthen your friendship. Try not to think about what’s burning you out and make the time you spend with loved ones positive and enjoyable.
Be more sociable with your coworkers. Developing friendships with people you work with can help buffer you from stress at work . When you take a break, for example, instead of directing your attention to your smartphone, try engaging your colleagues. Or schedule social events together after work.
Limit your contact with negative people. Hanging out with negative-minded people who do nothing but complain will only drag down your mood and outlook. If you have to work with a negative person, try to limit the amount of time you spend together.
Connect with a cause or a community group that is personally meaningful to you. Joining a religious, social, or support group can give you a place to talk to like-minded people about how to deal with daily stress—and to make new friends. If your line of work has a professional association, you can attend meetings and interact with others coping with the same workplace demands. You can also find virtual support groups through some online therapy platforms .
Find new friends. If you don’t feel that you have anyone to turn to, it’s never too late to build new friendships and expand your social network.
Being helpful to others delivers immense pleasure and can help to significantly reduce stress as well as broaden your social circle.
While it’s important not to take on too much when you’re facing overwhelming stress, helping others doesn’t have to involve a lot of time or effort. Even small things like a kind word or friendly smile can make you feel better and help lower stress both for you and the other person.
BetterHelp is an online therapy service that matches you to licensed, accredited therapists who can help with depression, anxiety, relationships, and more. Take the assessment and get matched with a therapist in as little as 48 hours.
Whether you have a job that leaves you rushed off your feet or one that is monotonous and unfulfilling, the most effective way to combat job burnout is to quit and find a job you love instead. Of course, for many of us changing job or career is far from being a practical solution, we’re grateful just to have work that pays the bills. Whatever your situation, though, there are still steps you can take to improve your state of mind.
Try to find some value in your work. Even in some mundane jobs, you can often focus on how your role helps others, for example, or provides a much-needed product or service. Focus on aspects of the job that you do enjoy, even if it’s just chatting with your coworkers at lunch. Changing your attitude towards your job can help you regain a sense of purpose and control.
Find balance in your life. If you hate your job, look for meaning and satisfaction elsewhere in your life: in your family, friends, hobbies, or voluntary work . Focus on the parts of your life that bring you joy.
[Read: Mental Health in the Workplace]
Make friends at work. Having strong ties in the workplace can help reduce monotony and counter the effects of burnout. Having friends to chat and joke with during the day can help relieve stress from an unfulfilling or demanding job, improve your job performance, or simply get you through a rough day.
Take time off. If burnout seems inevitable, try to take a complete break from work. Go on vacation, use up your sick days, ask for a temporary leave-of-absence, anything to remove yourself from the situation. Use the time away to recharge your batteries and pursue other methods of recovery.
Burnout is an undeniable sign that something important in your life is not working. Take time to think about your hopes, goals, and dreams. Are you neglecting something that is truly important to you? This can be an opportunity to rediscover what really makes you happy and to slow down and give yourself time to rest, reflect, and heal.
Set boundaries. Don’t overextend yourself. Learn how to say “no” to requests on your time. If you find this difficult, remind yourself that saying “no” allows you to say “yes” to the commitments you want to make.
Take a daily break from technology. Set a time each day when you completely disconnect. Put away your laptop, turn off your phone , and stop checking email or social media .
Nourish your creative side. Creativity is a powerful antidote to burnout. Try something new, start a fun project, or resume a favorite hobby. Choose activities that have nothing to do with work or whatever is causing your stress.
Set aside relaxation time. Relaxation techniques such as yoga, meditation, and deep breathing activate the body’s relaxation response, a state of restfulness that is the opposite of the stress response.
Get plenty of sleep. Feeling tired can exacerbate burnout by causing you to think irrationally. Keep your cool in stressful situations by getting a good night’s sleep .
If you’re having trouble following through with these self-help tips to prevent or overcome burnout, HelpGuide’s free Emotional Intelligence Toolkit can help.
Even though it may be the last thing you feel like doing when you’re burned out, exercise is a powerful antidote to stress and burnout. It’s also something you can do right now to boost your mood.
Aim to exercise for 30 minutes or more per day or break that up into short, 10-minute bursts of activity. A 10-minute walk can improve your mood for two hours.
Rhythmic exercise, where you move both your arms and legs, is a hugely effective way to lift your mood, increase energy, sharpen focus, and relax both the mind and body. Try walking , running, weight training, swimming, martial arts, or even dancing.
To maximize stress relief, instead of continuing to focus on your thoughts, focus on your body and how it feels as you move: the sensation of your feet hitting the ground, for example, or the wind on your skin.
What you put in your body can have a huge impact on your mood and energy levels throughout the day.
Minimize sugar and refined carbs. You may crave sugary snacks or comfort foods such as pasta or French fries, but these refined carbs can quickly lead to a crash in mood and energy.
Reduce your high intake of foods that can adversely affect your mood , such as caffeine, unhealthy fats, and foods with chemical preservatives or hormones.
Eat more Omega-3 fatty acids to give your mood a boost. The best Omega-3 sources are fatty fish (salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, sardines), seaweed, flaxseed, and walnuts.
Avoid nicotine. Smoking when you’re feeling stressed may seem calming, but nicotine is a powerful stimulant, leading to higher, not lower, levels of anxiety.
Drink alcohol in moderation. Alcohol temporarily reduces worry, but too much can cause anxiety as it wears off.
Since it’s not a diagnosable medical condition, burnout is a term that’s widely misused. But if you recognize the symptoms of burnout, such as feeling mentally, emotionally, and physically exhausted, it’s critical you pause, reevaluate your priorities, and make changes in your life. With the right treatment and support, you can recover from burnout, regain your energy and enthusiasm, and feel more hopeful.
Tips for regaining your energy, optimism, and hope
Find healthier ways to change how you feel
How to reduce, prevent, and relieve stress
Tips and prompts to journal
Quick tips for when you’re short on time
Using close relationships to manage stress and improve well-being
Fill your life with music that reduces daily stress
Tips for overcoming adversity
BetterHelp makes starting therapy easy. Take the assessment and get matched with a professional, licensed therapist.
Millions of readers rely on HelpGuide.org for free, evidence-based resources to understand and navigate mental health challenges. Please donate today to help us save, support, and change lives.
Uganda confirmed the first cases of Mpox on 24th July 2024 following the confirmation of two case-patients from Kasese District, Bwera Hospital by the Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI) through a routine sentinel surveillance system. These two cases were detected among six case-patients with symptoms consistent with the Mpox case definition. The two index cases were treated and discharged. Nationwide surveillance for mpox continues alongside routine surveillance.
This reporting week, two cases were reported from two districts (Amuru, Mayuge) which are outside the index district (Kasese). Today marks 29 days of responding to the Mpox outbreak and four days since the last confirmed case. This is the first national SitRep.
IMAGES
COMMENTS
Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". [1] It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, ... Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states that "research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze ...
Definition, Types, Methods, and Examples. Academic research is a methodical way of exploring new ideas or understanding things we already know. It involves gathering and studying information to answer questions or test ideas and requires careful thinking and persistence to reach meaningful conclusions. Let's try to understand what research is.
Research is defined as a meticulous and systematic inquiry process designed to explore and unravel specific subjects or issues with precision. This methodical approach encompasses the thorough collection, rigorous analysis, and insightful interpretation of information, aiming to delve deep into the nuances of a chosen field of study.
An inclusive, multi-disciplinary and contemporary definition of work has not been suggested. This scoping review was conducted to address this problem and gap in the literature. Further, this paper presents a multi-dimensional and spatial conceptualisation of work that is proposed to better inform future research and practice associated with work.
Research Definition. Research is a careful and detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue using the scientific method. It's the adult form of the science fair projects back in ...
Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, "research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.".
Research and development, in industry, two intimately related processes by which new products and new forms of old products are brought into being through technological innovation. ... Basic research is defined as the work of scientists and others who pursue their investigations without conscious goals, other than the desire to unravel the ...
Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.
Abstractspiepr Abs1. Every day people do research as they gather information to learn about something of interest. In the scientific world, however, research means something different than simply gathering information. Scientific research is characterized by its careful planning and observing, by its relentless efforts to understand and explain ...
Research is the deliberate, purposeful, and systematic gathering of data, information, facts, and/or opinions for the advancement of personal, societal, or overall human knowledge. Based on this definition, we all do research all the time. Most of this research is casual research. Asking friends what they think of different restaurants, looking ...
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
Introduction. Since the end of the 1980s, many studies have been conducted to explore the meaning of work, particularly in psychology (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010).A review of the bibliographical data in PsychInfo shows that between 1974 and 2006, 183 studies addressed this topic (Morin, 2006).This scholarly interest was primarily triggered by Sverko and Vizek-Vidovic's article, which ...
Research. Definition: Research refers to the process of investigating a particular topic or question in order to discover new information, develop new insights, or confirm or refute existing knowledge.It involves a systematic and rigorous approach to collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, and requires careful planning and attention to detail. ...
The meaning of RESEARCH is studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws. How to use research in a sentence.
What Is Research? Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.
Research conducted for the purpose of contributing towards science by the systematic collection, interpretation and evaluation of data and that, too, in a planned manner is called scientific research: a researcher is the one who conducts this research. The results obtained from a small group through scientific studies are socialised, and new ...
Research is a systematic endeavor to acquire understanding, broaden knowledge, or find answers to unanswered questions. It is a methodical and structured undertaking to investigate the natural and ...
Why We Work is a clearly written examination into how history, psychology, and business promoted the ideology that people only work for money and would prefer not to work at all. Through ...
Additionally, research (e.g., ) has postulated that work motivation could be seen as a source of positive energy that leads to employees' self-recognition and self-fulfillment. Therefore, work motivation is an antecedent of the self-actualization of individuals and the achievement of organizations.
Considering the recent and current evolution of work and the work context, the meaning of work is becoming an increasingly relevant topic in research in the social sciences and humanities, particularly in psychology. In order to understand and measure what contributes to the meaning of work, Morin constructed a 30-item questionnaire that has become predominant and has repeatedly been used in ...
Merriam-Webster on research, Full Definition of resea rch. 1: careful or diligent search. 2: studious inquiry or examination. especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery ...
The main difference between primary research and desk research is the source of data. Primary research uses data that is collected directly from the respondents or participants of the study. Desk research uses data that is collected by someone else for a different purpose. Another key difference is the cost and time involved.
Academic research writing tends to follow a structure that narrates a study from the researcher's motivation to conduct the research to why the research's findings matter. While there's seldom a strict requirement for sections in a paper or presentation, understanding commonly used patterns in academic writing will point out where the research ...
(2009, p. 70) described as "operating on an ultra-thin definition of work ...[that] claim[s] for sole authority in the other social sciences". Conceptual confusion and concomitantly thin or disparate operational definitions of work hamper research and should be countered with conceptual clarity (Bringmann et al., 2022).
The study, led by Climate Econometricians at the University of Oxford, the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), and the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change (MCC), analysed 1,500 observed policies documented in a novel, high quality, OECD climate policy database for effectiveness.
Work-related causes of burnout. Feeling like you have little or no control over your work. Lack of recognition or reward for good work. Unclear or overly demanding job expectations. Doing work that's monotonous or unchallenging. Working in a chaotic or high-pressure environment. Lifestyle causes of burnout
Uganda confirmed the first cases of Mpox on 24th July 2024 following the confirmation of two case-patients from Kasese District, Bwera Hospital by the Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI) through a routine sentinel surveillance system. These two cases were detected among six case-patients with symptoms consistent with the Mpox case definition. The two index cases were treated and discharged ...
Adobe Workfront is a cloud-based work management solution that helps teams and organizations plan, track, and manage their work efficiently. It is designed to streamline project management, task collaboration, resource management, and portfolio management across various teams and departments.